MENU PLANNING

Menu Planning

A menu is a list of specific foods offered by food establishments to its consumers for a specific period. Planning the menu is the process of listing down these foods which can be served for breakfast, lunch, dinner, or snacks. Menu plans may be for one day, for a week, three weeks, or even a month. Planning the menu is important for the following reasons:

» it enables the planner to think ahead and assures what to prepare in advance.

» It maximizes the use of available resources like food supplies, fuel, tools, equipment, and food in season.

» It enables one to predict the expected cost/budget for food.

» It helps anticipate possible problems that may come up based on the menu planned.

» It assures varied and interesting meal that would meet the needs and desires of costumers.

Goals in Menu Planning

• Nutritive Goal- the meals must not only satisfy the palates of costumers but they must be nutritious as well.

• Economic Goal- the meals must be planned to meet the meal budget of costumers. It must consider the affordability level of costumers to ensure patronage.

• Managerial goal- the meals must be planned according to the material and human resources available. This means that the manager should consider the number of workers, the skills they have, the food supplies, the tools and equipments available, the time for preparation, and the money available for purchase.

• Aesthetic goal- the meal should be pleasing, attractive, and satisfying to the costumers. There should be an aesthetic combination of dishes in terms of color, texture, flavor and temperature. Attractive dishes are certainly inviting to the costumers.

Importance of menu planning

Customer satisfaction

Facilitating costing

Facilitating pricing

Reference by customer and management

Guide production

Facilitate evaluation and improvements

Facilitate ordering

Plan storage

Guides the catering staff on how to prepare dishes

Help the catering staff to prepare in terms of attitudes, skills ordering etc.

Some menu requires special preparation like decorations and equipment therefore menu will help in availing the necessary.

Types of MENU

Table d’hôte

l A set menu forming a complete meal at a set price A choice of dishes may be offered at all courses. Choice and number of courses is limited to two, three or four.

A La Carte

Menu with all the dishes individually priced.

Customers compile their own menu from the list.

The meal is cooked to order.

The customer should be prepared to wait for this service.

Du Jour Menu- this refers to the menu for the day. This can be interpreted in two ways: 1)a special menu offered for the long day in addition to ala carte dishes or regular dishes and 2)the only menu offered for the day which is case is a limited menu.

Party/function Menus

Menu for banquets or functions of all kinds.

All guests start the meal at the same time.

Seasonable foods must be available if the menus are printed well in advance to avoid embarrassments.

Ethnic/Specialty menus

Can be al carte or table d’hôte specializing in the food or religion of the country or in a specialized food itself e.g.

a) Ethnic: - Chinese, Indian, Kosher, Kenyan, African etc

b) Specialty: - steak, fish, pasta, vegetarian etc

Kitchen staff must know how to obtain and use the ingredients.

The ambience (mood) of the restaurant must reflect the menu.

Hospital menus/Institutional menus.

It’s a form of a menu given to the patient. The day before service the patient ticks his/her preferences.

A dietician is usually involved with menu compilation to ensure nothing is given to the patients that would be detrimental to their health.

The patient’s meals are usually 2-3 courses.

Menu for people at work

Menus served to people at the work place.

They vary in standard and extent from one employer to another depending on the company policy.

They are usually served in staff canteens or cafeteria.

Some companies charge for the meals and some ask for a token sum and offer meals at a subsidized price/rate.

The menu offers 2 or 3 course meal with a selection of items.

Traditional menus/Ethnic menus

Traditional recipes form a sound foundation of knowledge for the chef/caterer.

However fashions in food change and customers look for new dishes, different combinations of food, fresh ideas on menu etc

Some of the most successful menus contain a sensible balance of traditional and contemporary dishes.

Menu for children

They emphasize on healthy eating and a balanced diet in schools.

Schools with children from different cultural and religious backgrounds should have appropriate items available on the menu.

Most establishments provide special children’s menus which concentrate on favorite foods.

Factors to consider when compiling menus

Pricing policy based on cost

Clientele

Staff capability

Facilities for cooking and service

Balance

Business promotion and marketing

Availability and season of supplies

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PERSONNELS AND FACILITIES

a) To plan menus adequately, it is important to analyze your prospective costumers.

b) The menu affects the number of people employed.

c) The kitchen facilities and kitchen layouts including the service area, affect the menu.

d) The menu affects the way food is prepared and the size of the portion served.

Costing and pricing menus

When costing include the following:

Cost of individual ingredients in a recipe

Cost of each recipe

Total cost of each dish

Total cost of the whole meal

Profit margin and price per portion

Objective of menu planning

Must Satisfy Guest Expectations

Reflect your guests’ tastes

Reflect your guests’ food preferences

Ascertain your guests’ needs

Must attain Marketing Objectives

Locations

Times

Prices

Quality

Specific food items

Must help to achieve
Quality Objectives

Quality standards: flavor, texture, color, shape, flair, consistency, palatability, visual appeal,

aromatic apparel, temperature

Nutritional concerns: low-fat, high-fiber diets, vegetarian

Must be Cost-Effective

Commercial:- financial restraints, profit objectives

Institutional:- minimizing costs, operational budget

Must be Accurate

Truth-in-menu laws exist in some localities,

cannot mislabel a product

“butter” must use butter not margarine

“fresh” must be fresh, not fresh frozen

“homemade” not purchased “ready-to-heat”

“USDA Choice” actually “USDA Good”

MENU ENGINEERING

Menu engineering is a comparative analysis of the dishes on a menu in respect of their contribution margin and menu mix.

It involves analyzing the popularity and profitability of each menu item.

Popularity in terms of the number of portions and profitability in terms of gross profit.

On the basis of Contribution Margin and Menu

Mix, the dishes are classified into

Ø Star

Ø Plough Horse

Ø Puzzle

Ø Dog

STAR

• It represent the dishes on the menu which have high cost margin as well as have high menu mix. Meaning profit is high and popularity is also high.

• They are both popular and profitable and should be paid special attention to in order to maintain its position and success. Its quality must be consistent; it must be promoted through suggestive selling

PLOUGH HORSE

• This represents the dishes which are high on popularity index but low on cost margins. These dishes can be made to stars if logically the prices is increased.

• They are popular but do not yield high gross profit. One might consider increasing their price to convert them to stars but it may not always prove successful as there may be a majority of guests who favor these menu items because of their low prices. In certain circumstances it may be possible to reduce the cost.

Puzzle

• These category represents the dishes which have high cost margin but there popularity index is low. Well these dishes can be raised to the level of plough horse by suggestive selling and other promotional tools

• These are profitable items but for some reason are not popular. To increase popularity one can consider reducing the price or rename and reposition the dish on the menu as it may presently placed unattractively.

Dog

• This category represent the dishes which are low on cost margin and low on popularity too. Well generally this dishes should be removed from the menu and instead of them other dishes are introduced

• These are neither profitable nor popular. In most cases it must be removed and replaced by a more successful food item. Incase one wants to promote sales, the quality of these items should be examined and verified. An attempt must be made to change their image and perception in order to increase sales.

MENU ENGINEERING FORMAT

Sr. No.

ITEM

No. Sold

MM %

Cost Price

Selling price

Selling price AI

Total Cost

Total Sale

Menu CM

Item CM

MM Category

CM Category

Category

Fair share

Fair Share %

popularity index @ 70%

Average Contribution Margin

Food cost

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INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN CUISINE

• 5000 YEARS OLD CIVILASATION

• ARYANS CAME TO SETTLE

• CULTIVATION OF WHEAT

• ALL KINDS OF MEATS, FRUITS AND VEGETABLES WERE EATEN

• SIMPLE AND NUTRITIOUS FOOD

• GURU SHISHYA PARAMPARA

• SECRETIVE ABOUT RECIPES, NO WRITTEN TEXTS

AYURVEDA

• AYUS MEANING LIFE AND VEDA MEANING KNOWLEDGE

• YOU ARE WHAT YOU EAT CONCEPT

• BASED ON FIRE AIR AND WATER CONCEPT

• SIX TASTES- SWEET, SALTY, PUNGENT, BITTER, SOUR AND ASTRINGENT

• CLASSIFICATION OF FOOD ON BASIS OF CHRACTERISTICS

• RASA- FOOD CLASSIFIED ON THE BASIS OF TASTE

• VEERYA- FOOD CLASSIFIED ON BASIS OF POTENCY

• PRABHAV- FOOD CLASSIFIED ON THE ACTIONS ON THE BODY AND MENTAL STATE OF MIND

- SATYAVIK

- RAJASIK

-TAMASIK

INFLUENCE OF TRAVELERS AND INVADERS

• INTRODUCTION OF VEGETARIAN FOOD BY ASHOKA THE GREAT

• BEEF A TABOO IN TIMES OF GUPTA DYNASTY

• INFLUENCE OF GREEKS IN 350 BC

• INFLUENCE OF MUGHALS FROM ARAB, IRAN AND PERSIA

• INFLUENCE OF MONGOLIA, CHINA

• INFLUENCE OF PORTUGESE- GOAN FOOD

• INFLUENCE OF BRISTISHERS

REGIONAL AND RELIGIOUS DIVERSITIES

• VEGATARINISM IN INDIA

• ISLAMIC AND HINDU WAYS OF SLAUGHTERING MEAT

• NO ROOT VEGETABLES IN JAIN FOOD

• BEEF ONLY AVAILABLE IN WEST BENGAL AND CHENNAI

• CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY EATS BEEF PORK ETC

• HINDUS AND SIKHS DO NOT EAT BEEF

TECHNIQUES USED IN INDIAN COOKING

• DUM- TO COOK COVERED SEALED WIOTH DOUGH WITH HEAT FROM TOP AND BOTTOM

• BHUNAO- SAUTE OR STIR FRY

• TALNA- DEEP FRY OR SHALLOW FRYING

• DUNGHAR- TO IMPART A SMOKY FLAVOUR

• SEKNA- TO ROAST, GRILL ON GRIDDLE

• BHAPA- TO STEAM

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SPICES

A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring, coloring or preserving food. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for flavoring or as a garnish. Spices prevent our food from spoilage and we are so much accustomed to eat spicy food. ... It is all because of bacteria and food borne pathogens: The chemical compounds of spices protect their plants as well as our food from food spoilage microbes and bacteria. Spices don't just make your food taste good, they're important for your overall health, too. Ginger and turmeric have anti-inflammatory properties, while caraway, cumin, and cinnamon play a role in digestion and can help with weight management. Coming to flavors, each spice provides a different flavor. ... Some ground spices are also used for color like turmeric powder and also Kashmiri red chili powder. Spices play a very important role in Indian cooking and it is used extensively! Without spices, Indian cuisine will not have its unique aroma and flavor.

Role of SPICES

Spices can be defined as any dried, fragrant, aromatic or pungent vegetables or plant substances in whole, broken or ground forms that contribute flavour, whose primary function in food is seasoning rather than nutrition and that may contribute piquancy of foods and beverages. The use of spices as food additives has been practiced widely since ancient times. Apart from enhancing the taste and flavour of food, spices have been widely believed to exert digestive stimulant action. A few medicinal properties of spices such as tonic, carminative, stomachic, diuretic and antispasmodic have long been recognized. These attributes largely empirical nevertheless efficacious have earned them pharmacological applications in the indigenous systems of medicine as digestive stimulants and to relieve digestive disorders.

Definitions of Herbs and Spices:

Definitions of herbs and spices vary somewhat but can be identified as follows:

Herbs are leaves of low-growing shrubs. Examples are parsley, chives, marjoram, thyme, basil, caraway, dill, oregano, rosemary, savory, sage and celery leaves. These can be used fresh or dried. Dried forms may be whole, crushed, or ground.

Spices come from the bark (cinnamon), root (ginger, onion and garlic), buds (cloves, saffron), seeds (yellow mustard, poppy and sesame), berry (black pepper), or the fruit (allspice, paprika) of tropical plants and trees. Many dehydrated vegetable seasonings are available. These include onion, garlic, sweet peppers, mint, mixed vegetables and freeze-dried chives and shallots

Use of Herbs and Spices: Spices’ being so versatile in their features are a necessity across the global culinary scene, especially in India. Indians are supposedly one of the warmest, most intense and cultured people. The use of herbs and spices in cooking offers the chance to prepare exotic, gourmet dishes, or cultural meals and a way to cut or save calories and fat in cooking. Using herbs and spices can moderate dietary levels of fat, sugar and sodium. The calories in herbs and spices are far less than in breading, batters, gravies, sauces and fried foods.

PARTS OF PLANTS USED FOR SPICES FORMATION

Seeds

The Indian spices are used in their original forms to enhance the flavors of certain food items. Some of the seeds which are used as spices are ajowan, anardana, aniseed, caraway, celery, celeriac, coriander seeds, cumin seeds, dill seeds, fennel seeds, fenugreek seeds, mustard seeds and poppy seed.

Leaves

Leaves have a distinctive flavor, which makes the food more tasty and delicious. Different leaves are used all over the world for culinary and medicinal purposes. Some of the leaves which are commonly used as spices are basil laurel leaves, tej patta, curry leaves, peppermint leaves, mint origanum parsley, sage savory and rosemary leaves.

Flowers and fruits

Some common flowers which are used as spices are rose, caper, rhododendron, juniper, kokum, mace, nutmeg and vanilla. IV. Roots Roots of various plants are used as spices and condiments such as galangal, garlic ginger, horse radish, onion, stone leek, lovage, shallot, sweet flag and turmeric V.

Bark

Bark is a highly flavored part of the plant. It imparts taste to certain food items. Some common examples of such spices are black pepper, long pepper, chabika, clove, amchur, asafoetida, karpoor, musk mallow and others.

DETAIL DESCRIPTION OF SOME IMPORTANT INDIAN SPICES

Cumin Seeds

In regions where highly spiced foods are preferred, cumin is a favourite. In fact, the world over it comes second only to black pepper as the most popular spices. Whole Cumin has a distinctive flavour and strong, warm aroma is due to its essential oil content. It is a necessary ingredient of all mixed spices and curry powders. It is also used in some Dutch cheeses and in traditional French bread. In terms of medicinal value, Cumin is stomachic, diuretic, carminative, stimulant, astringent and antispasmodic. It has been used to treat carpal tunnel syndrome, diarrhoea, indigestion and morning sickness. A small, slender and smooth herbaceous annual belonging to the parsley family, cumin is grown in well-drained sandy loam and medium soil.

Dill Seed

In norse “dill” means to lull. Dill tea is believed to cure insomnia. The seed is light brown, winged and oval, with one side flat having two ridges. The other side is convex with three ridges and three oil channels. The leaves and stalks are aromatic and are used fresh or for pickling. Whole dill seeds have a somewhat sweet aroma but are slightly bitter in taste. The seeds contain carvone as an essential oil. Dill is considered a carminative.

Fennel Seeds

Fennel seeds are an ancient and common plant known to the Greeks and spread throughout Europe by Imperial Rome. The name comes from the Latin foeniculum, meaning “little hay”. Almost all parts of the plant are useful. Fennel leaves are used in French and Italian cuisine. It is traditionally considered one of the best herbs for fish preparation. It is carminative, a weak diuretic and mild stimulants.

Fenugreek Seeds

A plant belonging to the Fabaceae family, fenugreek leaves are used as a herb and the seeds as a spice. India is the largest fenugreek producer in the world. Fenugreek seeds are hard, stony, yellowish brown and angular. They have a warm and penetrating aroma, which becomes more pronounced on roasting. Fenugreek leaves a strong bitter aftertaste. It is commonly encountered in global cuisine, in preparations ranging from pickles to maple syrup. Fenugreek seeds are widely used as a galactagogue or milk producing agent by nursing mothers to increase breast milk supply. Fenugreek has medicinal value in fighting diabetes and cholesterol problems.

Celery Seeds

Celery leaf stalks and roots are used around the world as a vegetable. Celery seeds are used as flavoring or spice, either as whole seeds or as celery salt, ground and mixed with salt. It is an important ingredient of Indian and European cuisine. It is valuable in weight-loss diets. The common belief is that celery yields negative calories because it is very difficult for human to digest .Ground celery seeds are a great source of calcium. Ancient ayurveda used celery seeds to treat colds, flu, water retention, poor digestion and various types of arthritis.

Whole Chillies

Chillies are the dried ripe fruits of the species of the Solanaceae family. Out of 20 wild species, five are cultivated, with Capsicum annum being the most widely grown. India is the largest producer of chillies in the world. The fruits vary in shape, colour and pungency. The pericarp is leathery or succulent and turns from green to purple or red, orange or orange-red. Though chilli is a berry, the seeds are not embedded in the pericarp. Capsaicin in chillies imparts pungency. Extracted capsaicin is used in pain balms, cosmetics and medicines related to heart diseases. Capsanthin is a pigment in chillies, which is used as a natural and safe colouring agent in jams, jellies and squashes. Chilli also contains vitamin A, C, D and E.

Whole Turmeric

Turmeric is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to the Zingiberaceae or the ginger family. The tuberous rhizomes or underground stems have been used since ancient times as a condiment, atextile dye, and as medicine. Turmeric is used most in the powder form. It is bright yellow in colour, has an earthy, acrid aroma and a pungent, slightly bitter flavor. Whole turmeric contains an essential oil with a variety of sesquiterpenes. The colour and the taste come from conjugated diarylheptanoids. It is an excellent source of dietary fiber, vitamin B6, iron, potassium and manganese. It is also a good source of vitamin C and magnesium. Turmeric powder is very low in cholesterol and sodium. Indian turmeric is considered the best in the world and India produces nearly 90 percent of the world’s turmeric.

Asafoetida (Hing)

This is sap from stem and root of a plant, dried into a hard resin. The smell of this spice in the raw uncooked form is strong and pungent; so unpleasant that it is often called as the devils dung, or the stinking gum. However this initial funky pungent smell mellows and almost disappears, replaced by a smooth pleasant flavour when it is added to hot oil or ghee. The flavour is not the spicy fiery kind, but more like Leek or Onion. Hing is definitely a gem in the kitchen. In its raw form, the strong aroma will contaminate other spices, so it is better stored in an air tight container. The resin form is hard and deep amber in color. It has to be powdered before it is used for cooking or medicinal purposes. I usually get hing from India, in the hard resin form as you see above, as it retains the aroma longer than ground powder, and use a mortar and a pestle to grind it as I need it. In Indian grocery stores, the hing is usually found in powdered form. A little goes a long way when it comes to this spice; so only a tiny bit when seasoning and tempering to flavour food.

Tej Patta (Cinnamomum tamala)

Often mistaken as the Bay Leaf (leaf of the Laurel tree) used in Western cooking, these are actually three veined leaves of the tree belonging to Cinnamonum group of trees. Tej Patta or Tamalpatra as it is called in Sanskrit are used to flavour different curries and rice. The leaves are aromatic with a slight hint of the fragrance of cinnamon. The leaves are first browned in oil to increase the aroma.

Carom Seeds /Ajwain (Trachyspermum copticum)

These are pungent, tiny seeds grayish in colour and often mistaken to be the “Bishop’s Weed”. Ajwain has very strong flavors and the smell and the taste bears close similarity to Thyme. They have a sharp and slightly bitter taste on the tongue. In Indian cooking, the Ajwain is rarely used raw. They are usually dry roasted lightly or tempered in hot oil.

INDIAN SPICES, CONDIMENTS

ALLSPICE :-

• Allspice trees are evergreen medium sized, grow up to a height of 8 to 10 meters and with a slender upright trunk and smooth grayish bark.

• The tree is indigenous to West Indies (Jamaica) but is also found in Central America. In India, there are few trees in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The dried berries range in size (6.5 to 9.5 mm in diameter)

• Has flavour of cloves nutmeg ,cinnamon and pepper

• Kannada: Gandamenasu

• Tamil: Sarvasukanthi

• HINDI KEBABCHINI

Asafoetida :-

• Asafetida is the dried latex (gum oleoresin) exuded from the living underground rhizome or tap root of several species of Ferula (three of which grow in India), which is a perennial herb (1 to 1.5 mtr. High).
The species are distributed from the Mediterranean region to Central Asia. In India it is grown in Kashmir and in some parts of Punjab. The major supply of asafetida to India is from Afghanistan and Iran.

• There are two main varieties of asafetida ie. Hing Kabuli Sufaid (Milky white asafetida) and Hing Lal (Red asafetida). Asafetida is acrid and bitter in taste and emits a strong disagreeable pungent odor due to the presence of sulphur compounds therein. It is available in three forms ie. ‘Tears’, ‘Mass’ and ‘Paste’. ‘Tears’, is the purest form of resin, rounded or flattened, 5 to 30 mm in diameter and a grayish or dull yellow in color. ‘Mass’ asafetida is the common commercial form, uniform in mass. ‘Paste’ form contains extraneous matter.

• The white or pale variety is water soluble, whereas the dark or black variety is oil

• Hindi Hing

Basil :-

• Basil also known as French Basil or Sweet Basil or Tulsi is an erect glabrous herb, 30-90 cm high is indigenous to India. The leaves of basil have numerous oil glands with aromatic volatile oil. The herb bears cluster of small white lipped flowers in racemes. .

• It is indigenous to the lower hills of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and is cultivated throughout India. It is also cultivated in Southern France, Egypt, Belgium, Hungary, and other Mediterranean countries and also in USA. The dried leaves and tender four sided stems are used as spice for flavoring

• Hindi Ambdika Tulsi

BAYLEAF (TEJ PATTA) :-

• Bay Leaf or Laurel Leaf are dried leaves or an evergreen shrub or more rarely a tree attaining a height of 15 to 20 mtrs. The upper surface of the leaf is glabrous and shiny, olive green, and lower surface is dull olive to brown with a prominent rib and veins

• It widely cultivated in Europe, America and Arabian countries. It is not cultivated as a commercial crop in India.

• Bay leaves are used as flavouring in soups, stews, meat, fish, sauces and in confectionaries. Both leaves and fruits possess aromatic, stimulant and narcotic properties. The essential oil from the leaves are also used as spice and food flavouring agent and has wider application in traditional medicines of different countries.

BISHOPS SEED :-

• Also known as ajwain, Bishop's Weed is an aromatic spice with a wondrous flavor. Traditionally, India has been one of the most important sources of Bishop's Weed with Rajasthan and Gujarat as the main producing regions. Roasting or frying in combination with potatoes or fish enhances the strong aroma of Bishop's Weed. Legumes (lentils, beans) are however the most important field of application; in India. In South Indian cuisine (which is predominantly vegetarian), tadka (frying in butter or ghee) of preparations are not only applied to dried legumes but also to green vegetables and boiled rice.

Ajwain is much used as a medical plant in ayurvedic medicine (India) to help against diseases of the digestive tract and fewer.

Caraway seed :-

• Caraway of commerce is the fruit of a biennial herb. The plant has a fleshy root and slender branched stem that attains a height of 0.5 to 0.6 mtrs, with small white flowers in compound umbels

• It is a native of North and Central Europe and is extensively cultivated in Holland, Russia, Poland, Bulgaria, Denmark, Rumania, Syria, Morocco, and to a small extent in England, and US. It is cultivated as a cold season crop in the hills of Kashmir and Kumaon at an altitude of above 2750 MSL.

• Hindi Siah Jeera/Shahi Jeera

CARDAMOM :-

• The Indian cardamom is slightly smaller but more aromatic than other varieties of it. Two South East Asian species, Siam cardamom and round cardamom (Jawa cardamom) from Indonesia have good cardamom flavor and can be taken as substitutes for Indian cardamom.

Cardamom is the dried fruit of a herbaceous perennial and in India it is mainly grown in Kerela, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and on the shady slopes of the Western Ghats. Warm humid climate, loamy soil rich in organic matter, distributed rainfall, special cultivation and processing methods all combines to make Indian cardamom truly unique in aroma, flavor, size and color.
History also finds a mention of cardamom in the cuisine during the Mughal reign. In Sri Lanka, the pods are added to fiery beef or chicken curries to have the extravagant aroma of cardamom and its flavor .

Hindi Choti Elaichi

CINNAMON :-

• The “True Cinnamon” or Sri Lankan Cinnamon is the dried inner stem bark of Cinnamomum Verum. Cinnamon plants are grown as bushes. When the plants are of two years age, they typically measure at about 2 meter in high and 8-12 cm at the base. It is at this stage they are ready for harvesting.
Cinnamomum verum is mostly cultivated in Sri Lanka, Malagasy Republic and Seychelles. It has originated in the central hills of Sri Lanka. In India, it is grown in one or two locations in Kerala. Cinnamon is a hardy plant and is cultivated in Sri Lanka under varying conditions ranging from semi dried to wet zone conditions.

• It is found to help diabetics in digestion of sugar. It has astringent; stimulant and carminative properties and can check nausea and vomiting

• Hindi Dal Cheeni

RED CHILLY :-

• In Northern India, as well as in Central Asia, chilies are used dried mostly. They are sold whole or ground at the market and are intensively fiery, intensively colored and intensively aromatic. In India, chilies from Kashmir (in the Northwest of India) have the best reputation and chilies are considered to be the universal spice of India. In India the states of Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu are the major chili producing areas and no country in the world has so much area and production of chili as India.

Chilies have two important commercial qualities, as some varieties are famous for red color because of the pigment Capsanthin while others are known for biting pungency attributed by capsaicin.

• Hindi Lal Mirch

CORRIANDER :-

• The name 'coriander' is based on the Greek work 'kopis' which means 'bug'.
Coriander leaves (also called coriander green) are popular in almost all parts of Asia and is used in India, Thailand, Vietnam and parts of China in the form of garnish for variety of dishes.

• The aroma of this fruit is warm, nutty and spicy while the leaves have a strong odor.
In India Coriander is an essential part of curry powder, Indian masalas, in Ethiopia it is used for berebere, which much resembles the Indian spice mixtures apart form being used in Latin American cuisine.

• Coriander is a thriving crop in the Indian subcontinent because of the availability of the required environment and climatic conditions. Major producers of coriander in India are the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Madhya Pradesh.

• Hindi Dhaniya

CUMIN :-

• Cumin is one of the most typical spices for India and is fried or roasted before usage. Legumes, especially lentils are normally flavored by cumin fried in butterfat. Cumin also forms an essential part of the curry powder and of the Bengali spice mixture, panch phoron, besides being used in Northern Indian tandoori dishes. In imperial North Indian cuisine (Mughal or Mughlai) the mixture of cumin is prepared to relish sweet and aromatic flavor. This spice mixture is sometimes used for cooking, but more frequently sprinkled over the dishes before serving.

• Cumin is a very popular spice in Western to Central Asia (Near and Middle East); in central and South America along with Burma, India, Indonesia. Indian cumin finds worldwide use in foods

• Hindi Zeera/ Jeera

CLOVES :-

• The clove of commerce is the air-dried unopened flower bud obtained from evergreen medium sized tree. The tree grows to a height of 10-12 mtrs and start flowering in about 7 years. It continues to produce flower buds for 80 or more years. It is a valuable spice of the orient

• The use of clove in whole or ground form is mainly for culinary purposes and as a flavouring agent in food industry. Its flavour blends well with both sweet and savory dishes. The tree is indigenous to West Indies (Jamaica) but is also found in Central America. In India, there are few trees in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. As early as 200 BC, envoys from Java to the Han-dynasty court of China brought cloves that were customarily held in the mouth to perfume the breath during audiences with the emperor. During the late Middle Ages, cloves were used in Europe to preserve, flavour, and garnish food. Clove cultivation was almost entirely confined to Indonesia

• Hindi Laung

CURRY LEAF :-

• The leaves of curry leaf tree is a spice. The tree is an aromatic deciduous one, five meter in height, 15-40 cm in diameter. It is cultivated mainly in homesteads but to a certain extent on a plantation scale.

Origin and Distribution

• Curry leaf is found almost throughout India up to an altitude of 1500 mtrs. It is much cultivated for its aromatic leaves.

• Uses

The leaf is used in South India as a natural flavouring agent in various curries. Volatile oil is used as a fixative for soap perfume. The leaves, bark and root of the plant are used in the indigenous medicine as a tonic, stimulant, carminative and stomachic.

• Hindi Kari patta

DILL :-

• Dill is a herbaceous annual with pinnately divided leaves. The ripe, light brown seeds emit an aromatic odour. The leaves have pleasant aromatic odour and warm taste. Both seeds and leaves are valued as spice.

• Origin and Distribution European Dill (Anetheum graveolens) is indigenous to Europe and is cultivated in England, Germany, Romania, Turkey, USA and Russia. The Indian dill (Anetheum sowa), a native of Northern India is bolder than the European dill. It is cultivated as a cold weather crop in many parts of India.

• Uses Dill seed is used both whole and ground as a condiment in soups, salads, processed meats, sausages and pickling. Dill stems and blossom heads are used for dill pickles.

• Hindi Sowa

FENNEL :-

• It is a biennial, aromatic, stout, glabrous, 1.5 to 1.8 mtr high. The ripe fruit (seed) is small, oblong, cylindrical, 6.8mm long, straight or slightly curved, greenish yellow, deeply furrowed, 5 ridged and having agreeable aroma.

• It is a native of Europe and Asia Minor. It is cultivated extensively in Northern India as a cold weather crop. It comes up well in fairly mild climate. The dry and cold weather favours high seed production. Prolonged cloudy weather at the time of flowering is conducive to diseases and pests.

• Uses The leaves of fennel is used for garnishing. Leaves and stalks are used in salads. It is an essential ingredient in Italian sausages, widely used to sprinkle on pizza. Dried fruits have fragrant odour and pleasant aromatic taste and therefore used as a masticatory.

• Hindi Saunf

FENUGREEK :-

• Fenugreek seed is the ripe fruit of an annual herb. This robust herb has light green leaves, and produces slender, beaked pods

• Origin and Distribution Fenugreek is a native of South Eastern Europe and West Asia, now cultivated in India, Argentina, Egypt and Mediterranean countries (Southern France, Morocco and Lebanon). In India it is grown extensively in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Punjab. It is a cold season crop and is fairly tolerant to frost and very low temperature.

• Uses Fenugreek is used both as a food and food additive as well as in medicines. Fresh tender pods, leaves and shoots are eaten as curried vegetable. As a spice, it flavours food. Powder of dried leaves is also used for garnishing and flavouring variety of food. Roasting methi seeds reduces the bitterness

• Hindi Methi

NIGELLA :-

• Often confused with black cumin, nigella comes from a completely different plant. This plant is a relative of the delicate love-in-a-mist which decorates many gardens world wide. Though the consumption of nigella in India is mostly limited to the north, it is cultivated over vast areas, its pale blue flowers creating a sea of colours in the lush landscape. Nigella is usually known as black onion seed, a misnomer really, as seed have nothing to do with onion.

• It contains Glucoside which is toxic in nature, hence the use of Kalonji in large doses and prolonged use can be harmful.

• Hindi Kalonji

KOKKAM :-

• Kokkam is a slender evergreen small tree with drooping branches. tree growing up to 18 mtr high. The fruit is spherical, purple, not grooved having 5-8 seeds compressed in an acid pulp.

• The tree is oriental in origin, found in Southern India, particularly in the tropical rain forest of Western Ghats of Ratnagiri, Konkan, Coorg and Wynadu region. It is also found in the evergreen forests of Assam, Khasi, Jantia hills, West Bengal and Gujarat.

• The ripened, rind and juice of Kokkam fruit are commonly used in cooking. The dried and salted rind is used as a condiment in curries. It is also used as a garnish to give an acid flavour to curries and for preparing attractive, red, pleasant flavoured cooling syrup.

• Hindi Kokkam

MUSTARD :-

• Mustard is an annual herb cultivated as oil seed crop or as vegetable or as fodder, of which, 3 species are known for its condiment value. They are pale yellow or white mustard (Brassica hirta), brown mustard (Brassica juncea) and black mustard (Brassica nigra).

• The yellow/white mustard is indigenous to Southern Europe, whereas brown mustard is from China introduced to Northern India. The black mustard is endemic in the Southern Mediterranean region. The white mustard is widely cultivated in Australia, China, Chili, Denmark, Italy, Japan, The UK, The Netherlands, North Africa, Canada and USA.

• The major processed products are mustard powder used in the manufacture of mayonnaise, dried or dehydrated mustard leaves, whole mustard seeds etc. Whole mustard is used as a flavouring agent in Indian cooking, whereas ground mustard provides flavour and consistency in Bengali fish curries.

• Hindi Sarson/Rai

NUTMEG AND MACE :-

• Nutmeg & Mace are two distinctly different spices produced from a fruit of an evergreen tree usually 9-12 mtr high. Mace is the dried reticulated ‘aril’ of the fruit and nutmeg is the dried seed kernel of the fruit. .

• Nutmeg tree is indigenous to Moluccas. The major nutmeg growing areas are Indonesia and Granada. It also grows on a smaller scale in Sri Lanka, India, China, Malaysia, Zanzibar, Mauritius and Solomon Island.

• Both nutmeg and mace are used as condiment particularly in sweet foods. The spice in the ground form is mainly used in the food processing industry especially as a standard seasoning in many Dutch dishes

• Hindi Jaiphal/Javitri

BLACK PEPPER :-

• Black Pepper is the dried mature berry of Piper nigrum, a climbing, perennial shrub mostly found in hot, moist region of Southern India.

• Pepper is considered originated in the hills of South Western Ghats of India. It is now grown in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Brazil, Mexico, and Guatemala apart from the country of origin. The tree is indigenous to West Indies (Jamaica) but is also found in Central America. In India, there are few trees in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The dried berries range in size (6.5 to 9.5 mm in diameter)

• Pepper is largely used by meat packers and in canning, pickling, considering for its preservative value. It has the ability to correct the seasoning of dishes, therefore used as a final dash at the end of cooking to effectively adjust the flavour.

• Hindi Kali Mirch

LONG PEPPER :-

• Pepper long is the dried fruit of Piper longum which is a slender, aromatic plant with creeping jointed stems and perennial woody roots.

• The plant is distributed from Central Himalayas to Assam, Lower hills of Bengal, evergreen forests of Western Ghats, Nicobar Islands, Uttar Pradesh and Nepal. The plant is distributed from Central Himalayas to Assam, Lower hills of Bengal, evergreen forests of Western Ghats, Nicobar Islands, Uttar Pradesh and Nepal.

• It is used as a spice and also in pickles and preserves. The fruits and roots are used as medicine for respiratory disease and as counter irritant and analgesic for muscular pains and inflammation.

• Hindi pipli/pipal

POMEGRANATE SEEDS :-

• Pomegranate is deciduous shrub or a small tree with a dark grey bark, 5-8 meters high. Leaves are opposite, oblong, 2.5-6 cm long. Flowers at terminals or auxiliary, solitary, large, orange red

• It is widely cultivated in Iran, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. In India it is grown in almost all states but cultivated in large scale in the States of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh.

• The seed dried with pulp is used as a spice in many dishes. The fruit juice is cooling and refrigerant. The fruit rind is useful in chronic dysentery and diarrhoea. The pulp and seeds are stomachic and are also used as laxative. The flower buds are used in bronchitis.

• Hindi Anardana

POPPY SEEDS :-

• Poppy seeds are not narcotic, however in Asia, poppy is much cultivated for culinary purposes and for the production of opium. Opium is obtained from the latex of the mature fruits by making incisions on them. Therefore, no opium reaches the seeds from the ovaries.

• Ground poppy seeds are common thickening agent in the Mughal cooking style of Northern India to obtain the sweet, mild, nutty flavor and aroma. Poppy's nutty taste is loved by the Japanese and used for the subtly flavored dishes typical for Japan.

• Hindi Khuskhus

SAFRON :-

• Like most of the European spices, Saffron derives from Arabic za'fran "be yellow". The Hindi and Sanskrit names have been derived from the Northern Indian region Kashmir, where old saffron was produced. Saffron is the most expensive spice in the world. In production countries the price is much lower, but so is the quality. Saffron's aroma is unique and there is no substitute for it. Saffron is the slender, dried, reddish-brown, flattened stigma of a small crocus of the iris family.

• Saffron is cultivated from the Western Mediterranean (Spain) to India (Kashmir). In much smaller scale, saffron is also cultivated in Italy and Greece (Crete). Of the Western and Central Asian cultivation areas, Iran is most productive and together with Spain and Iran produces more than 80% of the world's production. The saffron grown in India- Kashmir has particularly high reputation, but is hardly available outside India.

• Hindi Zafran

STAR ANISE :-

• Star anise is the dried, star shaped fruit of Illicium verum. It is an evergreen tree attaining a height of 8-15 meters and a diameter of 25 cm

• Star Anise is indigenous to South Eastern China. Commercial production is limited to China and Vietnam. In India, it is produced to a small a extent in Arunachal Pradesh.

• Star anise is one of the signature flavours of Chinese savory cooking. The five-spice powder mix common in China contains star anise. It is used to flavour vegetables, meat, and to marinate meat

• Hindi: Anasphal

TAMARIND :-

• The ripe fruit of tamarind tree is used as a condiment. It is a moderate size to large, evergreen tree, up to 24 mtr in high and 7 mtr in girth. Bark is brown or dark gray, longitudinally and horizontally fissured.

• Tamarind is originated in Madagascar and is now extensively cultivated in India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, several African, Central American and South American countries. In India, it is chiefly grown in Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

• Tamarind pulp is used in numerous culinary preparations. It is also a raw material for the preparation of wine like beverages. The tamarind kernel powder is found to be extensively used for its sizing properties, in textile, confectionary, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. The tender leaves and flowers are used as vegetables.

• Hindi Imli

TEJPATA :-

• Indian Cassia also known as Tejpat (Cinnamomum Tamala) is a small to moderately sized ever green tree. The leaves of this tree is the spice having clove like taste and a faintly pepper like odour. The tree has height up to 7.5 mtr with zigzag branching, trunk up to 95 cm girth, bark rough, dark grey to reddish brown in colour.

• It also grows in Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. The leaves are harvested when the tree attains an age of 10 years which continue for a century. Mature leaves are collected during October to March.
Uses The leaf is mainly used for flavouring food. It is also used in Indian system of traditional medicines. The tree is indigenous to West Indies (Jamaica) but is also found in Central America. In India, there are few trees in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

• Hindi Tejpata

TURMERIC :-

• Turmeric is the boiled, dried, cleaned and polished rhizomes Curcuma longa. The plant is a herbaceous perennial, 60-90 cm high, with a short stem and tufted leaf

• It is a native of India. Apart from India, it is cultivated in Pakistan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, Japan, Korea, China, Sri Lanka, Nepal, East & West Africa, South Pacific Islands, Malagasy, Caribbean Islands and Central America. In India, it is cultivated in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.

• Turmeric is used to flavour and to colour foodstuffs. It is a principal ingredient in curry powder.

• Hindi Haldi

There is a common string connecting all Indian cuisines though; and that is: the spices. Indian cuisines are incomplete without spices.

Indian masalas or the spice mixes are the hearts of cooking stews and curries. They provide taste and aroma to lentils, veg and non-veg stews, curries, and rice dishes. What’s more, the Indian street food is also treated with spices. The masalas are prepared with the intention of balancing hot and tangy taste of the food.

Indian Masalas

The dry masalas are used to flavor lentils, vegetables, seafood, and meat. The ingredients are roasted over low heat until they release a faint aroma. A fine powder is made and they are stored in an airtight container.

Some of the popular spice mixes used in Indian cuisines are given here –

Biryani Masala

It is used for savory spiced colorful and flavorful rice.

Fennel Seeds - 50 gm

Black Cardamoms - 10 gm

White Poppy Seeds - 40 gm

Star Anise - 10 gm

Cumin Seeds - 30 gm

Caraway Seeds - 10 gm

Cinnamon Powder - 30 gm

Bay Leaves - 10 gm

Whole Cloves - 20 gm

Mace - 10 gm

Green Cardamoms - 20 gm

Nutmeg Powder of 2/4 piece

Chhole Masala

It is used for chick pea curry.

Coriander Seeds - 2 tbsp

Cloves - 4-5

Cinnamon - 1” piece

Cumin Seeds - 2 tbsp

Black Cardamom - 3-4 pods

Anardana - 1 tbsp

Bay Leaf - 1

Whole Dry Chilies - 1 or 2

Black Peppercorns - 1 tbsp

Coastal Fish Masala

It is used for fish curry and fish fry.

Dry Coconut Grated - 3 tbsp

White Pepper Corns - ¼ cup

Sesame Seeds - 1 tbsp

Green Cardamom Pods - ½ cup

Mustard Seeds - 2 tblsp

Cumin Seeds - ¾ cup

Saffron Strands - ¼ tbsp.

Nutmeg Powder - ¼ cup

Black Pepper Corns - ¼ cup

Garam Masala

It is a usual spice mix used in stews.

Coriander seeds - 4 tbsp

Black Cardamom - 3-4 large pods

Cumin seeds - 1 tbsp

Cloves - 2-3 pieces

Black Peppercorns - 1 tbsp

Cinnamon - 2 × 1” pieces

Black Cumin seeds - 1 ½ tbsp

Bay Leaves - 2 Crushed

Dry Ginger Powder - 1 ½ tbsp

Kala Masala

It is used to flavor lentils and Masala Rice.

Coriander Seeds - 500 gm

Mace Flower - 50 gm

Dry Red Chilies - 250 gm

Cinnamon Bark - 50 gm

Dry Coconut shredded - 250 gm

White Poppy Seeds - 50 gm

Dry Turmeric Roots - 50 gm

Caraway Seeds - 50 gm

Asafoetida Chunks - 50 gm

Sesame Seeds - 50 gm

Cloves 50 gm Sesame Seeds - 50 gm

Black Pepper Corns - 50 gm

Bay Leaves - 50 gm

Flower Stone - 50 gm

Green Cardamom - 25 gm

Whole Nutmegs- 5 pieces

Black Cardamom - 25 gm

Meat Masala

It is used to flavor chicken and lamb dishes.

Cumin Seeds - 20 gm

Ginger Powder - 5 gm

Coriander Seeds - 8 gm

Garlic Powder - 5 gm

Cloves - 5 gm

Red Chili Powder - 5 gm

Cinnamon - 2” Stick

Turmeric Powder - 5 gm

Orange food coloring - 1 gm

Mace Powder - 5 gm

Salt - 5 gm

Pao-Bhaji Masala

It is used in a tangy stew paired with pao .

Red Chili - 50 gm

Black Cardamom - 4-5 pieces

Coriander Seeds - 50 gm

Dry Mango Powder - 25 gm

Cumin Seeds - 25 gm

Fennel Seeds - 10 gm

Black Pepper - 25 gm

Turmeric Powder - 1 tbsp

Cinnamon - 25 gm

Star Anise - 2 pieces

Clove - 25 gm

Rajmah Masala

It is used to spice kidney beans curry.

Cloves - 4 pieces

Black Peppercorns - 4 pieces

Cardamom - 2 pieces

Cumin Seeds - 1 tbsp

Cinnamon Stick - 1” stick

Cumin Powder - 1 tbsp

Bay leaf - 1 piece

Ginger Garlic Paste - 1 tbsp

Coriander Powder - 1 ½ tbsp

Garam Masala Powder - ½ tbsp

Red Chili Powder - 1 tbsp

Dry Mango Powder - ½ tbsp.

Sambar Masala

It is used to flavor a curry named Sambar; prepared with cooked pigeon peas, drumsticks, tomatoes, pumpkin pieces, and cubes of other vegetables. Sambar is paired with Idli, Urad wada, Uthapam, or various types of Dosa.

Chana Daal ¼ cup

Black Peppercorns - ¼ cup

Urad Daal - ¼ cup

Dry Red Broken Chili - ¼ cup

Coriander Seeds - ½ cup

Dry Grated Coconut - ¼ cup

Cumin Seeds - ¼ cup

Mustard Seeds - ¼ cup

Fenugreek Seeds - ¼ cup

Turmeric Powder - 2 tbsp

Dried Curry Leaves - 20 pieces

Asafetida Powder - 2 tbsp

Tea Masala

It is used to prepare flavored tea.

Black Cardamom - 1 pod

Black Peppercorns - ¼ tbsp

Cardamom Seeds - From 25 pods

Dry, Ground Ginger Powder - 1 tbsp

Cloves - 4 pieces

Ground Cinnamon Powder - 1 tbsp

Fennel seeds - ½ tbsp

Carom Seeds - ¼ tbsp

There is a very large variety of spice mixes for side dishes such as curd based salad named Raita, appetizers such as Jal-Jeera and Chhach, sweet flavored milk named Thandai, and Indian street food named Chaat. There are also some other spices such as pickle masala, a combination of five spices named panch-poran used in eastern states of India. The list goes on according to the taste preferences and diversity in cultures.

Basic Indian Gravies

Gravy is the soul of Indian cuisine. Gravy is a thick liquid of saucy consistency that provides body and flavor to the curries and other food preparation. It provides the basic five tastes − bitter, hot, sweet, sour, and salty. In this section, we will discuss some popular gravies −

White Gravy

A basic gravy that adds body to the curries:

Ingredients −

Chopped Onions - 300 gm

Green Cardamom - 2 pieces

Cashew nuts - 200 gm

Bay leaves - 2 pieces

Water - 200 ml

Chopped Green Chilies - 2

Ginger-Garlic Paste - 25 gm

Oil - 5 tbsp

Sweet Yogurt - 200 gm

Preparation −

Put cashew nuts in boiling water for five minutes. Drain the water and put fresh water and chopped onions into it. Cook till onions turn soft. Drain the water and grind to fine paste. Heat oil in a wok. Add cardamoms, bay leaves, and chopped green chili. Add yogurt into it and cook for a while. Add cashew nut-onion paste and cook further till oil separates. Cut the heat and let it cool for storing. A variation named Yellow Gravy is prepared by adding turmeric and saffron and replacing green chili with yellow chili.

Red Gravy

It is tomato based gravy that introduces sour taste:

Ingredients −

Tomatoes - 1kg

Ginger Garlic Paste - 20 gm

Onions - 500 gm

Garam Masala - 10 gm

Tomato Puree - 250 ml

Chili Powder - 30 gm

Preparation −

Boil tomatoes by adding onions and whole garam masala till they turn soft.

Blend them together till smooth.

Add ginger-garlic paste, salt, red chili powder, and tomato puree in this mixture.

Boil the mixture for 20 to 25 minutes. Yet another version of this gravy called Makhani Gravy is prepared with addition of butter 100 gm, 200 ml cream, and 2 tbsp fenugreek powder.

Brown Gravy

It is used as a base for preparation of meat curries.

Ingredients −

Chopped Onions - 1 kg

Red Chili Powder - 30 gm

Tomatoes - 500 gm

Tomato Puree - 200 ml

Garam Masala - 5 gm Oil 5 tbsp

Preparation −

Heat oil in a pan.

Add Garam Masala, chopped onion into it and cook till the onion turns brown and translucent.

Add red chili powder, tomatoes, and tomato puree.

Cook on medium heat till the tomatoes leave water.

Grind this mixture into fine paste.

Shahi Gravy

This gravy is used in gourmet Indian cuisine:

Ingredients −

Cashew nut - 200 gm

Onions - 50 gm

Almonds - 75 gm

Green Cardamom Powder - 5 gm

Poppy Seeds - 25gm

Bay Leaves - 2

Ginger-Garlic paste - 10gm

Garam Masala - 1 tbsp

Oil - 4 tbsp

Preparation −

Boil cashew and poppy seeds together.

Boil onion and almonds separately.

Grind them to fine pastes.

Take oil in a frypan.

Add Garam Masala, bay leaves, and cardamom powder.

Add all pastes except cashew-poppy seeds paste.

Cook for a while on low heat by stirring occasionally.

Add cashew-poppy seeds paste.

Cook further for a couple of minutes and cut the heat. Yet another version of Shahi Gravy called Korma Gravy is prepared using 1 cup dried solid milk (Khoya) and 1 cup yogurt.

Green Gravy

This gravy is used in gourmet Indian veg and non-veg cuisine. Its main ingredient is coconut:

Ingredients −

Fresh grated coconut - 2 cups

Fresh Chopped Cilantro (fresh coriander) with stems - 1 cup

Green Chilies - 4 pieces

Mint ¼ cup

Salt - ½ tbsp

Ginger - 1 ½” piece

Preparation −

Put all the ingredients in a blender. Grind to fine paste of thick consistency by adding a little water.

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MARINADES

A marinade is a seasoned liquid with various aromatics in which meat, poultry, game and even vegetables are steeped.

Marinades are made up of the following components:

1. Oil – could be olive, peanut, salad or plain refined oil. Flavored oils such as garlic oil, chilli oil and herb flavored oil can also be used. The oil in the marinade helps to prevent moisture loss.

2. Acid – A whole range of acid products can be added into the marinade. Citrus fruits, vinegars (plain and flavored), lemon juice, yogurt, red and white wine are generally used.

3. Aromatics – such as herbs, spices, proprietary sauces.

4. Seasoning – primarily salt, sea salt, black salt, garlic salt, rock salt and grain salt.

The function of a marinade is:-

A. To add flavour and taste to the food.

B. To act as a tenderizer and break down the connective tissue (this is done by the acid in the marinade.

C. To act as a preservative. When only their flavor is intended, the aromats can be tied in a sachet to be removed after their flavor has been released. All marinated meats must be dried properly before use. Wet meats will not brown properly.

The length of time for marinating depends on several factors :-

a. The type of meat or food stuff. Beef will take longer than chicken to marinade. Also the cut of meat is important. Tenderloin will need very little marinating time compared to the rump.

b. The size of the item. A leg of pork will take longer than the leg of chicken

c. The temperature. Foods marinade best at room temperature. However, at times refrigeration will be required if the item is being kept overnight. In any case, fish has to be marinated at refrigerated temperatures.

Some marinades are cooked, others are uncooked.
A cooked marinade, because it is heated, allows the aromats to release their full flavor.

Raw marinades are ideal for long term periods.
In both cases, the marinating should be done in non corrosive containers such as glass or stainless steel. Avoid plastic and aluminum.

Storage:

A cooked marinade is best stored under refrigeration, and has a long shelf life. Uncooked marinades should be prepared for instant use. If necessary, these should also be refrigerated.

BEER MARINADE

Beer - 450 ml
Lemon juice - 30 ml
Garlic (crushed) -8 cloves
Shallots - a few (chopped)
Coriander - a few sprigs (chopped)
Red Chilli - 3-4
Cumin powder - 1 tsp
Salt - a pinch
Black pepper - a pinch

Combine all the ingredients and blend thoroughly.

COOKED MARINADE

Carrots - 100 gms
Shallots - 50 gms
Peppercorns - 10-12
Cloves - 2-3
Parsley stalk - 4-5
Thyme - a pinch
Rosemary - a pinch
Bayleaf - 1-2
Water - 1 litre
White wine - 500 ml
Vinegar - 50 ml
Oil - 100 ml
Combine all ingredients except oil and simmer for an hour.
Cool & add oil.

SZECHWAN MARINADE (For grilling)
Soy Sauce - 150 ml
Water - ¼ cup
White wine - 100 ml
Garlic - 6-8 flakes
Ginger paste - 15 gms
Peppercorn - 1 tbsp ( crushed)
Red chilli flakes - 1 tbsp
Star Anise - 1
Sesame oil - 15 ml
Brown Sugar - 30 gms

Combine all the ingredients and heat in a saucepan for 10 minutes. Allow to cool before use.

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COMMODITIES USED IN INDIAN COOKING

• SOURING AGENTS

• COLOURING AGENTS

• THICKENING AGENTS

• TENDERISING AGENTS

• FLAVOURING AGENTS

• SPICING AGENTS

SOURING AGENT:-

• VINEGAR- SYNTHETIC, MALT, TODDY

• TOMATO- DESI AND SALAD TOMATO

• CURD- PLAIN, HUNG

• TAMARIND

• LIME-LEMON

• KOKUM

• MANGO- RAW, DRIED, AAM PAPAD

• POMEGRANATE SEEDS- DRIED

• COMBODGE

• KACHRI- RAJASTHAN, ASLO USED AS TENDERISER

• SALTS- TARTARIC ACID, CITRIC ACID

COLOURING AGENTS

• SPICES- TURMERIC, RED CHILLY, CORRIANDER,, CUMIN ETC

• TOM ATO

• KOKUM- PINKISH HUE

• BROWN ONION PASTE

• SAFRON- BROIL AND POWDER FOR MAXIMUM COLOUR

• VEGETABLE PASTE- SPINACH, CORRIANDER, FRESH FENUGREEK, MUSTARD LEAVES

• SUGAR- CARAMELIZED COLOR

• FLOWERS AND BARKS- RATTANJOT, MOWAL

GIVING COLOUR TO A CURRY

• TURMERIC: Bright yellow.

• SAFFRON: Pale apricot.

• RED CHILLIES: Reddish brown.

• FRESH CORIANDER: Green

• RED TOMATOES: Pink if combined with yoghurt and red if used on its own.

• ONIONS: Deep brown

• CORIANDER POWDER: Deep brown.

• GARAM MASALA: Deep brown.

THICKENING AGENTS

• Onion- boiled and fried

• Nut pastes such as cashew nut, almonds, chironji, coconut. Used in biryani and gravies, mainly for thickening and enriching purposes

• Coconut: added mainly for thickening gravies like korma. Coconut milk serves as a base for many stews

• Seed pastes- pumpkin seeds, charmagaz poppy seeds etc

• Masala pastes- wet masalas

• Lentils- channa dal, besan

• Dairy products-balai or clotted cream, khoya

• Vegetable pastes- fresh turmeric, ginger , garlic spinach etc

TENDERISING AGENTS

• CURD

• LIME-LEMON

• KACHRI

• VINEGAR

• TAMARIND

• FRUIT- RAW PAPAYA(PAPAIN), PINEAPPLE(BROMALIEN), FIGS(FICIN)

Tenderizing agents used in Indian cooking:- 1.Curd 2. Lime 3. Kachri 4. Vinegar 5. Tamarind

6.Fruits.

1. Curd:

Curd is basically fresh milk inoculated with a culture of lactobacillus. It is the lactic acid in curd that helps to break down meat fibres and renders the product soft and succulent when cooked in tandoor. In curries it is usually added at the end. Apart from the curds, the whey of the hung curd also known as khatti lassi is used for marinating the meat for tenderizing.

2. Lime:

The citric acid content in this fruit is what causes the tenderizing action on the meat fibres. It is also used for marinating of meats for kebabs. The other citrus fruits, such as orange, kokum, and gamboge, etc. can also be used as tenderizers.

3. Kachri:

Kachri is a wild variety of melon-like fruit of cucumis family and is found in Bengal, Punjab, parts of Maharashtra, the northern and western provinces, and the Sind area (now in Pakistan). It is used as a tenderizing agent for meats, especially for kebabs and biryanis.

4. Vinegar:

Vinegar is produced when natural yeast in the air acts on the juice of the fruit used to make the vinegar. It converts the sugar to alcohol and then this alcohol is converted into acid. Acetic acid is the substance which gives it its tenderizing quality. The strength of acetic acid in vinegar varies depending on the fruit base.

Every country produces vinegar made from locally abundant fruit. Grape and cider vinegar remain the most popular for cooking in the West

5. Tamarind:

Found mostly in south India, this is an extremely sour, beanlike fruit with larger seeds. The ripe fruit contains two acids— citric and tartaric acid—that give it a characteristic sour taste and its tenderizing properties.

6. Fruits:

FLAVOURING AND AROMATIC AGENTS

• FLOWERS-ROSE PETALS, MONGREY, SCREWPINE

• WOOD- CINNAMON, SANDALWOOD

• SPICES- MACE, CARDAMOM, CLOVES ETC

SPICE CATEGORIES

TASTE

• coriander

• turmeric

• cumin

• mustard

• fenugreek

• fennel

AROMA

• bay leaf

• clove

• nutmeg

• cardamom

•

SPICING AGENTS

• CHILLIES

• PEPPER- PIPLI, BLACK PEPPER

• GINGER POWDER

• TURMERIC POWDER

• MUSTARD SEEDS

• BLENDED MASALA PASTE- GOAN, VER ETC

CHILLIES:-

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SEAFOOD

FISH

CLASSIFICATION:-

• ACCORDING TO FLESH TYPE-

LEAN FISH/WHITE FISH

OILY FISH-Salmon, Mackerel, Trout, Sardines, Anchovy

• ACCORDING TO SHAPE

ROUND- Kingfish, Haddock, Sole

FLAT- Pomfret, Lemon Sole, Turbot, Plaice

• ACCORDING TO HABITAT (Living Area)

OCEAN

RIVERS AND LAKES

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLAT AND ROUND FISH:-

FLAT FISH	ROUND FISH
The fish are flat in shape	The fish are round in shape
Both the eyes are one side	Eyes are on the either side of the fish
These fish swim flat to the surface of the water with the belly aligned parallel to the water bed	These fish swim in a horizontal fashion
Belly side of the fish is white in colour	Both the sides of the fish are of same colour
Examples are: Plaice, Turbot, Flounder, Skate, Halibut, Sole etc	Examples are: Salmon, Trout, Snapper, etc
It yields four fillets	It yields two fillets

SHELLFISH:-

• MOLLUSCS

UNIVALVES/GASTROPODS-Clams, Mussels, Oysters, & Scallops

BI VALVES-Abalone, Snails

CEPHALOPODS-Squids, cuttle fish

• CRUSTACEANS

ARMOURED EARS

JOINTED SUITS-LOBSTERS, CRABS, SHRIMPS, PRAWNS, CRAYFISH, CRAWFISH,

BUYING SEAFOOD:-

Sniff

• It should have a fresh clean aroma. It should not smell fishy, have a strong odour like ammonia, which means that the flesh is starting to decay.

Feel

• It should feel slick (Chalak, Chust) and moist . If scales are present they should be firmly attached.

Press

• It should feel firm and spring back when you release your finger. If a visible finger imprint remains then the fish is not fresh.

Look into the eyes

• They should be bulging and crystal clear. As a fish ages the eyes lose moisture and the eyes sink into the head.

Check the GILLS

• They should be moist and have a good red to maroon colour with no trace of gray or brown.

Fin And Tail

• They should be firm.

NO BELLY BURNS

• There should be no sign of belly burn, which occurs when the guts are improperly removed . The flesh should show no tears or breaks. What happens is the stomach enzymes begins to eat into the flesh causing it to come away from the bones. This happens if the guts are not removed properly.

Live Fish Shopping

Signs of Movement

Lobsters & Crabs-MUST MOVE

Clams & Mussels- MUST CLOSE

Throw out those that are:- Open & the ones which do not, close when tapped

PRELIMINARY CLEANING

Clean the fish well, cut off the fins.
Scrape off the scales, remove the fins and gills
Make a slit in the belly and remove all the internal organs. This is also known as gutting of the fish
Wash them in running water to remove all the blood and any physical impurities.

CUTS OF THE FISH

Cuts of Fish are:-

Darne - A slice of round fish, with skin, cut across the bone.

Fillet- Half of the fish. Boneless, skinless.

Supreme- A slanted slice, cut from the fillet of a large fish. Boneless, skinless. Tronçon-A small fish, cleaned and served whole (no head, tail or fins).

Goujons- Strips 2" x ¼" from the fillets of small fish such as sole (used for making fish fingers).

Delice- A fillet of fish which has been neatly folded and trimmed.

Paupiette- Lightly flattened fillet, coated with fish farce and rolled.

Fresh Water Fishes

Salt Water Fishes

Molluscs

Molluscs are one of the most diverse groups of animals on the planet, with at least 50,000 living species (and more likely around 200,000) Snails, octopuses, squid, clams, scallops & oysters.

Crustaceans

Crustaceans (Crustacea) form a very large group of arthropods, which includes such familiar animals as Crab, Lobster, Crayfish, Shrimps, etc

Dishes

Storage

• Ideally Should be FRESH

• Otherwise in a refrigerator

• Rinse in cold water

• In Crushed ICE

• Container should be perforated

• A container to collect melted ice

CHANGE THE ICE DAILY

• Fish Fillets should be in plastic bags in ICE

Ice should not come in contact with the fish or it will lose its FLAVOUR as well as its TEXTURE

• Never allow fresh water to come in contact with live shellfish

• Clams, Mussels, Oysters - NEVER IN ICE, STORE THEM IN- MESH BAGS

• Clams and Oysters are SHUCKED

• Mussels are not SHUCKED

-only beards removed

Marinades

• Salt, Pepper, & Lime Juice

• Nowadays: -

SPICES,

HERBS,

OLIVE OIL,

ORANGE JUICE,

MUSTARD

• As long as 30 minutes

COOKING METHODS

• GRILLING - Tuna, Lobsters, (tough)

• SAUTEING -Skin side first

• COLD AND HOT POACHING

• OLIVE OIL POACHING - warm oil

• STEAMING - fat busters

• SMOKING

COOKING SHELLFISH

• Lean -- Low FAT

• Moist Heat

• Low Temperatures

• Dry heat and High heat will make them

rubbery and tough

SPECIES OF TUNA

• AHI

• ALBACORE

• BIG EYE

• YELLOW FIN

• BONITO

• BLUE FIN

SPECIES OF SALMON

• PACIFIC SALMON

• ATLANTIC SALMON

• CHINOOK SALMON

• CHUM SALMON/DOG SALMON

• COHO SALMON

CLASSICAL PREPARATIONS OF SEAFOOD

• CEVICHE- PERU

• ESCABECHE- SPAIN

• SUSHI/SASHIMI-JAPAN

• ROLLMOPS- DENMARK

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MEAT

MEATS:-

TYPES:-

• LAMB

• BEEF

• PORK

• POULTRY

• GAME

PHYSICAL CHRACTERISTICS:-

• MUSCLE TISSUE- Fibrous connective tissue further divided into skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle

• ADIPOSE TISSUE

• BONE TISSUE

PROCESSING ANIMAL FOR SLAUGHTER

• EXAMINATION

• RESTING- Rigor Mortis

• CLEANING AND SANITIZING

• STUNNING- Different ways

• SLAUGHTER – immediately after stunning

• BLEEDING- Hanging

• AGEING OF MEAT-Tenderness

LAMB

• RAM/HOGGET

• EWE

• WETHER/KHASSI

• KID LAMB/AGNELET

• SPRING LAMB/YEARLING

• MUTTON

CUTS OF LAMB:-

CUTS FROM SHOULDER:-

• SHOULDER CHOP

• BLADE CHOP

• SHOULDER ROAST

• LAMB NECK

CUTS FROM BEST END OF THE NECK:-

• LAMB RACK- Guard of honor, crown roast/Champ

• LAMB CHOP

• LAMB CUTLET

CUTS FROM LOIN:-

• SADDLE OF LAMB-Puth

• LOIN CHOP

• SIRLOIN CHOP

• LOIN ROAST

CUTS FROM LAMB LEG:-

• LAMB LEG- Raan

• LEG CHOP

• LAMB SHANKS- Nalli

• TOPSIDE- Boti

• SILVERSIDE- Kareli

CUTS OF BREAST OF LAMB:-

• LAMB RIBS- Pasli ka panja/Parcha/ Chikna keema

• SPARE RIBS

• RIBLETS

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BEEF

• BULL/COW

• STEER

• HEIFER

• VEAL

• YEARLING BULL/COW

• BEEF PRODUCING COUNTRIES

• RETAIL CUTS

• GRADING OF MEAT

• NUTRITIONAL ASPECT OF BEEF

• KOBE FROM JAPAN

• SUET AND ITS USES

• MARBLING

CUTS OF BEEF

CUTS FROM CHUCK OF BEEF:-

• STICKING END/NECK PIECE

• CHUCK

• BLADE

CUTS FROM LOIN OF BEEF:-

• LOIN

• SIRLOIN

• TENDERLOIN

• RIB EYE STEAK

• T BONE STEAK

• PORTERHOUSE STEAK

CUTS FROM RUMP OF BEEF:-

• RUMP

• TOP SIDE

• SILVER SIDE

CUTS FROM LEG OF BEEF:-

• HIND SHANK

• FORE SHANK

CUTS FROM FLANK OF BEEF:-

• SKIRT

• FLANK

CUTS FROM TENDERLOIN OF BEEF:-

DONENESS OF STEAK:-

SELECTION CRITERIA OF BEEF

• THE MEAT SHOULD BE FIRM AND BRIGHT RED.

• IT SHOULD BE WELL MARBLED I.E. IT SHOULD HAVE A GOOD SHOWING OF FLECKS OF WHITE FAT.

• IT SHOULD HAVE A GOOD OUTSIDE COVERING OF FAT, CREAMY WHITE IN COLOUR AND OF FIRM TEXTURE.

• THE BONES SHOULD BE SHINY AND PINKISH WITH A BLUE TINGE. THERE SHOULD BE LITTLE OR NO GRISTLE ON STEAKS.

• YELLOWISH FAT IS ALWAYS A SIGN THAT THE ANIMAL IS OLDER OR OF A DAIRY BREED.

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PORK

• HOG- Castrated Male Pig

• PORK- Meat from Hog that are 5 months or older

• BOAR- Male Pig

• SUCKLING PIG- Baby pig 6-8 weeks old which is still feeding on milk

• DOMESTICATED PIG

• CAREFUL IN SELECTING PORK-Tape worms

• LEAN MEAT

• CHARCUTERIE

CUTS OF PORK

CUTS FROM JOWL:-

• JOWL- Obtained from Chin of Pig. It is ideal for slow cooking. Traditionally cooked in England as a famous dish Bath Chaps

• JOWL BACON- This Bacon is prepared from the cheeks of the Pig. It is always eaten cold

CUTS FROM SHOULDER

• SHOULDER CHOP: This cut is the section at the top of the foreleg. Ideal for slow cooking. Shoulder can be cubed and used in forcemeats and for stewing. In Indian Pork Vindaloo is made using this cut

• NECK END: This is the part of the shoulder closest to the neck. The fat content makes this cut ideal for sausage making

• PICNIC SHOULDER- This is the lower potion of the shoulder attached to the foreleg. It is also known as Boston Butt. It is used to prepare famous ham called picnic ham.

CUTS FROM LOIN

• CENTER ROAST/CENTER CHOPS: This is the center of the loin. This cut is used for roasting, braising or boiling. Individual steak sliced from it are called centre chops and are ideal for grilling, pan frying or broiling

• BLADE ROAST/BLADE CHOP: This is the part of the loin closest to the shoulder. It can be cooked in the same way as centre roast.

• LOIN ROAST/LOIN CHOP: This is the middle part of the loin. It is ideal for roasting, braising or boiling

• Pork Chop comes from the blade or the center of the loin which is the ribs. An individual chop on Bone is called as Pork Chop.

a. Butterfly or valentine chop: When the blade chop is split open to resemble a heart shape it is called Butterfly or valentine chop. These are often grilled, pan fried or broiled

CUTS FROM LEG

• HAM- The fresh ham is the hog’s hind leg. The ham is usually cured and smoked and consist of 24 percent of total weight of pig. Hams such as Parma Ham from Italy, Serrano from Spain are the world famous Ham’s.

• GAMMON- whole animal is cured. To prepare Gammon the whole animal needs to be cured and then is separated from the hind leg

• HOCK- hock hams are used in stews. This is the shank portion of the lef. The shank from front leg is called shoulder hock and the one from the hind is called ham hock. Hocks are usually cured and smoked and are generally used in flavoring soups and casseroles.

CUTS FROM BELLY

• SPARE RIBS: These are removed from the belly and are a section that may include the cartilage. Ideal for barbecues, smoking and grilling

• PORK BELLY: This is the part located below the loin. It accounts for the total of 16 percent of the weight of the animal.

• BACON: Since the belly of the pork is very fatty with streaks of lean meat trapped inside, it is smoked to create bacon

• GREEN BACON: Bacon which is not cured and smoked is known as Green Bacon

• CANADIAN BACON: Bacon than comes from the loin of the pig called Canadian Bacon.

SELECTION CRITERIA OF PORK

• THE PORK SHOULD BE RECEIVED WITH SKIN ON. THIS SHOULD BE FREE OF HAIR, SHOULD FEEL MOIST AND ELASTIC TO TOUCH

• ALWAYS RECEIVE PORK THAT HAS LIGHT PINK FLESH WHICH GIVES AFRESH LOOK. THIS MEANS THAT THE MEAT SHOULD APPEAR MOIST BUT NOT DAMP OR OILY LOOKING

• SELECT MEAT WHERE THE CUT BONE APPEARS RED IN COLOUR, THE WHITENESS OF THE CUT SIDE OF THE BONE INDICATES THE OLD AGE OF THE ANIMAL AND HENCE THE MEAT WOULD BE LESS TENDER

• WHEN RECEIVING PORK ALWAYS MAKE SLASHES WITH THE KNIFE ON THE LEGS TO SEE IF THERE ARE ANY TAPEWORMS

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PASTRY

PASTRY

Various types of pastries are used in the preparation of sweet and savory dishes in the bakery and confectionery. These include:

1. Short crust pastry

2. Flaky pastry

3. Puff pastry

4. Danish pastry

5. Choux pastry

6. Rough puff pastry

7. Hot water pastry

SHORT CRUST PASTRY

Short crust pastry is a mixture of flour, fat, sugar and sometimes egg and milk. The flour should have a low gluten (a mixture of two proteins present in cereal grains, especially wheat, which is responsible for the elastic texture of dough.

What exactly is gluten?

Gluten is part of the tough, elastic protein found in wheat, rye, barley, oats, and many other grains. It binds the dough in baking and prevents crumbling. Gluten is formed when the proteins glutenin and gliadin, present in flour, combine with water) content, one that is milled from soft wheat flour. The fat will reduce the extensibility of the gluten, that is it makes the gluten strands shorter….hence the term shortening for the fat used in the bakery and also the term short crust pastry. The usual method of making short crust pastry is by the rub-in method. Chilled fat or butter is rubbed into the sieved flour so that it is finely dispersed and resembles a sandy or bread crumb like texture. The fat forms a thin layer or coating on the glutenin and gliadin molecules, without turning the fat into a continuous paste. Cold water is sprinkled over the mixture to form smooth dough. The ratio of fat to flour is normally 1:2, but the fat can be increased to equal the flour to obtain rich dough. This dough would be very difficult but not impossible, to work with. Pate Sucre is a sweet version of this pastry and sugar is creamed with butter before the flour and the moisture is added. The ratio of sugar fat and flour is 1:2:4. Various sweet and savory (taste) products are made with short crust pastry. It forms the base of several pies, tarts, flans and also products like cheese straws and turnovers. Few precautions must be taken when making short crust pastry. It is important not to work the dough too much as it will get tough due to the development of gluten. This can also happen when scrapings and trimmings are added to the dough and re worked. The use of too much flour for dusting will also alter the ratio of the mixture and cause toughening as the extra flour proteins – glutenin and gliadin - does not have a coating of fat around it, and thus come together to form gluten.

Some faults in Short Crust Pastry

- Hard or tough pastry is due to too much liquid, or too little fat. It is also probably due to over mixing.

- A soft and crumbly pastry is due to too little water for the binding, too much fat or the use of self raising flour instead of plain flour.

- A shrunken pastry is due to excess stretching during rolling.

- A soggy pastry is the result of the filling in the product being too moist.

LAMINATED PASTRY

This category of pastry includes Puff, Flaky, Rough Puff and Danish Pastry.

Puff and Flaky are two of the most remarkable products of the Bake Shop. Although they are similar products, they are made differently and it is almost impossible to tell which is. Puff is referred to as the French method whereas the English refer to it as Flaky pastry. The Scots have their own version and call it Rough Puff Pastry. The flour used for laminated pastry must be of high gluten content so that it will stand up to the manipulation involved in building up the laminated structure. Butter is the preferred fat because of its flavour and melt in the mouth quality. Special pastry margarine is also available. It has a low moisture content and good creaming value…ideal for this kind of pastry. This product is easy to work with as it does not get too hard in the refrigerator. A weak acid solution such as lemon juice or cream of tartar is added to the dough as it will confer greater extensibility to the gluten.

Puff pastry has equal amounts of fat and flour. Dough is made with flour and salt and the lemon juice. After allowing it to rest, the dough is rolled out into a square and the creamed block of fat is placed in the centre. The dough is then folded around the fat and it is refrigerated for a while. The dough is then rolled into a rectangle about ½ “thick. Fold the two ends to the centre and then into half (book fold). Make sure that the edges /corners are even. Refrigerate/rest the dough to relax the gluten. Do not refrigerate for too long as the fat will harden. Now turn the dough 90° on the table so that the length now becomes the breadth. This step must be repeated before subsequent rolling so that it helps to stretch the gluten in all directions, not just lengthwise. Failure to do this will result in the product that shrinks unevenly when they are baked. Repeat the rolling and folding a total of four times. The dough is now ready to be rolled out for the final shaping and cutting.

Flaky pastry is a similar product. The dough is similar but the amount of fat is only 2/3 (66%) that of the flour. The fat is creamed into a homogenous mass and divided into three parts. The dough is rolled out into a rectangle about ½ “thick. One third of the fat is then spread onto 2/3^rd of the dough surface. The dough is then folded into three so that there are alternate layers of fat and dough. The dough is then rested / refrigerated to relax the gluten. The process is repeated twice more to use up all the fat and then once again without fat (blind fold). Remember to rest the dough between each rolling. The pastry is now ready for the final make up.

Khari biscuits, vol-au-vents, cream horns, cheese straws, meat and vegetable puffs are some of the sweet and savory products made with puff and flaky pastry.

Rough Puff pastry is the Scottish answer to Puff and Flaky pastry. This is the quickest method of making a laminated pastry. Old books describe it as the Blitz method, the term being derived from the German Blitzen. Meaning lightening. In this method, the fat is mixed into the sieved flour in pieces, the size of walnuts. Dough is made using water and a little lemon juice, without using too much pressure so that the fat does not completely blend into the dough. The dough is then rolled out like the Flaky pastry method and the process is repeated two more times. The dough is now ready for rolling cutting into the desired shape.

When laminated pastries are baked, the fat melts and forms oil layers between the layers of dough, preventing them from sticking to each other. As the heat penetrates into the product, the water in the dough layers changes into steam and pushes the lubricated leaves of dough apart. This produces an increase in the volume of the dough. Later, the gluten in the flour coagulates while the water is dried out so that by the time the pastry is properly cooked, it is able to retain its distended puffy volume. The temperature of the oven has an important role to play in the success of this product. The temperature must be hot enough to generate the steam required.

Danish pastry is rich, sweet and fermented dough. The fat is laminated into the dough and therefore, Danish is also considered a laminated pastry. A ferment of yeast, sugar, eggs and milk is added to the flour to make the soft dough. After resting and knocking back the dough, it is then rolled into a rectangle and the fat spread evenly. The dough is then cut into 3 uneven sizes and a spool is made….that is….rolling the smallest into the medium and then that into the largest piece of dough. The dough is wrapped into a moist cloth and refrigerated for 15-20 minutes. It is then rolled and cut into the desired shapes. Egg wash is applied and the product is allowed the second proving and then is baked at 200°C for 20 minutes. The pastry is brushed with sugar syrup after baking.

Croissants, windmills, turnovers and napoleons and breakfast Danish are products.

CHOUX PASTRY

The French term for this pastry Pate a choux literally means cabbage paste, because the profiteroles and cream puffs made from this pastry resemble little cabbages. These are hollow shells which have a crisp and brittle texture. They are then filled with a variety of fillings both sweet and savoury – including creamed cheese, fresh cream, crème patisserie and fish and meat pate. Water, butter and salt are boiled together and then the flour is added in to form a partly gelatinized paste. It is mixed vigorously with a wooden spoon and then cooked once more till the mixture has a shiny appearance and leaves the sides of the pan. Beaten eggs are added gradually to the paste, beating continuously to form a smooth pliable and piping consistency mass. It is then piped into the desired shapes – rosettes, fingers or balls. Choux paste is baked at 200°C so as to achieve maximum rise. The temperature is then reduced to 150C to dry out the shells and to obtain the crisp and brittle texture. During the baking, the products should not be subjected to unnecessary movements, otherwise the structure will collapse. Shells can be stored in airtight containers and used as and when required. Eclairs, Cream Puffs, Duchesses, profiteroles and cream puffs are all choux pastry based items.

HOT WATER PASTRY

This is also known as the cooked pastry and is seldom used these days. It’s a lean (soft) dough made by cooking the flour, salt and a little fat in water to a paste. This paste is then used to line the sides of pie tins, using the hands to apply the mixture; The filling was then placed inside the tin and then covered with more of the paste. After baking, the dough was often discarded and it was more like a protective layer over the filling. Welsh miners oven carried their food wrapped in this pastry to work. At lunch time, the pastry was broken open and the filling- meat or fish - was consumed. Cornish Pasties, a traditional Welsh favorite was originally made with Hot Water Pastry.

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Bakery

Bakery can extend into past years of history. Romans first came with the art of baking and due to globalization it spread worldwide. Baked foods are healthy, tasty, and flavorful. They are in demand on special occasions such as weddings, parties, and social feasts. What is Baking?

Baking is a manner of cooking food by exposing it to direct heat or heated stones for long time under controlled temperature. Baking is not just limited to cakes, breads and biscuits but practically a wide range of sweet and savory foods such as pies, cookies, tarts, Baati , Rodgaa , and snacks can be baked. Baked food often comes up with aromatic food.

There are five basic ingredients required for baking −

Flour

Sugar

Margarine

Baking Soda/Powder

Salt

Commodities Used in Baking

Given below are some food commodities used in baking –

Flour − It is the basic ingredient of baking cookies, breads, cakes, muffins, pizzas, tarts, and pastries. Its variants are self-rising flour, wheat flour, all-purpose flour, cake flour, etc.

Essence − It is an extract acquired from a plant or other matter used for flavoring food. Some typical essence are almond, vanilla, saffron, lemon and rose.

Margarine or Butter − Margarine is made of refined vegetable oil, water, and milk. Butter is made of processing milk. These both are called shortening. Sugar − It is used as food sweetener.

Eggs − They are used as leavening and binding agents and they can bring moisture in the cakes. The chefs need to add either yogurt or applesauce in eggless cakes.

Baking Powder/Yeast − It is used as a rising/leavening agent that gives softness and fluffy texture to cakes and breads. The baking powder is white fine powder made of Sodium Bicarbonate, Potassium Bitartrate, and corn starch. The yeast comes in two variants − dry and liquid. Cocoa Powder − It is used for introducing chocolate flavor to the food.

Chocolate slabs − They are used for acquiring flakes by grating and then using the flakes for garnishing and decorating cakes. They come in the variety of chocolate-milk-sugar proportion. Now chocolate drops or chips are also available in the market.

Fruit Jams − They are used for decorating sweet baked products.

Milk − It is used for softening batter for the cakes, breads, and cookies. Salt − A pinch of salt is added into batter of sweet baked products to balance the taste of Baking powder and sugar.

Some typical equipment required in baking are –

Ovens − They are used as a heating chambers for baking. Direct heat large kilns and modern electric ovens are used in food preparation units. The electric ovens provide high degree of precise temperature control and uniform heat.

Mixing Machine − It is used to mix all bread or cake ingredients together into soft dough or batter.

Tins − There are tins with various shapes and sizes used in baking. They create the resulting baked product in attractive shapes.

Icing Bag with Nozzles − The icing bags hold the icing. They are used in decorating cakes in a large variety of ways using nozzles of catchy shapes and widths. They provide a great way of filling small glasses and molds in a sophisticated manner.

Baking Parchment − It is a cellulose-based paper used as a non-stick surface. It is often thin and disposable.

Knives − Bakery knives are used for cutting loafs, cakes, and handling pieces of cakes.

Cake Stands − They are required to keep cakes of multiple tiers. Some of them are rotary. They provide circular motion that makes the process of cake decoration easy.

Spatula − They are flat tip spoons, used to fold the batter and fill the icing bag. Spatulas
often have rubber tips. Basic Bread Fabrication

Bread fabrication is a complex process. Once started, it cannot be interrupted, as timing
is very important for bread making.

There are 12 important stages of baking a bread.

Weighing Ingredients

During this stage, the chef assembles all the required ingredients and weigh them
properly to ensure a good quality final product.

Preparing Ingredients

The chef selects an appropriate flour and sieves it. The chef also prepares yeast mixture
by adding right amount of water of right temperature into the dry yeast.

Mixing the Ingredients

Mixing the ingredients is not as simple as it sounds. There are various factors that need consideration such as room temperature, flour temperature, speed of machine, the timings of adding various ingredients like margarine, sugar, yeast etc.

Bulk Fermentation

During bulk fermentation, the yeast acts on sugar in the flour and releases carbon dioxide and alcohol while it respires. The gas makes the flour dough rise and the alcohol brings flavor to the bread. The longer the fermentation, the more intense the aroma.

Folding/Degassing

Folding a dough is superior to simply punching it down. Folding involves gently kneading the dough into parts and new rolls. Degassing is a very important piece of the bread jigsaw. It removes some of the carbon dioxide and redistribute the food for yeast so that the yeast can resume to their meal.

Dividing

A large dough is divided into several smaller portions to make loaves or buns.

Benching

At this stage, the dough is kept for a while so that the gluten can rest and shaping becomes easy. This time is not more than a few minutes.

Shaping

At this stage, the baker shapes the bread for various looks such as loaves, buns, begels, baguette, rolls, sticks, and other various shapes. Shaping affects the physical form of the bread.

Proofing

Once the dough is made into a desired shape, the baker keeps it for the final fermentation before it enters the oven. Proofing affects the chemical form of the bread.

Baking

The baker preheats the oven and keeps the doughs into it under a controlled temperature.

Cooling

In this stage, the baker takes out the bread and sets on the racks for exposing it to the air for cooling. Some breads such as baguette are eaten at room temperature.

The bread is thus ready to be consumed.

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Cakes

Cakes are named according to the way they are prepared.

Type & Preparation:-

1 Butter cakes

They contain fat such as butter. It starts with beating sugar and butter together until the sugar dissolves partially and then adding dry and wet ingredients alternatively. The resulting cake is light and rich with moisture. For example, Pound cake made with a pound each of butter, sugar, eggs, and flour.

2 Layer Cakes

They also contain butter and can be made by arranging layers of different butter cakes. For example, Golden cake, Birthday cake.

3 Sponge cake

They do not contain fat or leavener such as baking powder. The preparation starts with whipping eggs or egg whites such that it becomes fluffy with air. Dry ingredients are sifted and folded in gently.

During baking, the air expands to rise the cake on its own. It gives extremely light and spongy but less moist cake.

4 Angel Food Cake

It contains egg whites and no egg yolks. Preparation starts with beating egg whites until they are firm and adding dry ingredients gently. This cake is very white and delicate. It is often paired with addition of fruits. It is cooled by inverting it on the cooking rack.

5 Genoise

It is a kind of sponge cake made with whole eggs. In the preparation, eggs and sugar are combined and whipped in the pan kept over simmering water. They are sliced into thin horizontal layers and stacked with alternate layers of cream/frosting and slices to create layered cake. For example, Swiss roll.

6 Flourless Baked Cake

It does not contain flour. All ingredients are folded gently and poured into a pan that is kept in a larger pan which is partially filled with water. This water bath is arranged to reduce effect of strong heat from oven to this delicate cake. For example, cheese cake.

7 Flourless Unbaked Cake

They are chilled instead of baking. The bottom is often crusted with a layer of cake and on the top of it whipped cream and egg white is added. For example, Chocolate mousse.

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Pastry

It is dough often used for preparing both, sweet and savory meals. It contains flour, shortening like butter or oil, sugar, water, and salt. A filling is put inside the pastry and it is baked to get resulting food with crispy coat.

There are various pastries made such as short crust pastry, puff pastry, and Filo pastry. For example, pastry is used for pies, puffs, croissants, and tarts.

Pastes, Creams, Fillings, and Sauces

Baked items often look and taste good when paired with fillings and creams, and topped with sauces. They bring tempting presentation to the main cake or bread and also extend their flavor.

Pastes

Pastes are the compound of fruit pulp, lemon juice, and sugar. The bakers often add light spices such as cinnamon or cardamom, which go well with the sweet taste. Some widely used pastes in bakery are −

Apple paste Banana paste Coconut paste Guava paste Mango paste

For preparing savory puffed pastries, ginger-garlic paste is also used.

Creams

Their texture changes as per the amount of butterfat they contain. The higher the butterfat contents, less whipping is required to get thick cream.

Half and Half/Single Cream − It contains around 15% fat. It cannot be whipped as it contains proportion of cream and milk as 50:50. It goes well with coffee or on cereal.

Whipping Cream − It contains around 30% fat and it is thick enough to be whipped.

Double Cream − It contain around 48% fat. It cannot get whipped well.

Fillings

The fillings have a strong foot in the domain of desserts, cakes, and other bakery products. The fillings provide delicate flavor and aroma. A perfect filling has a good spreading ability and consistency. Some of the widely used fillings are −

Chocolate filling, Coffee fillings, Almond filling, Cashew nut filling, Hazelnut filling, Peanut filling Sauces

Various sweet sauces often known as dessert sauces are used with cakes and desserts that take them to the next heights. They contribute flavor and moisture to the dessert. The dessert sauces are made by combining cooked fruit pieces, sugar, and liquid caramel or light alcohol such as wine.

Some popular ones are crème Anglaise, classic caramel sauce, chocolate sauce, strawberry sauce, raspberry sauce, blueberry sauce, butterscotch sauce, and fruit curds.

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WHEAT

Difference Between Seeds and Grains.

A seed is defined as an embryonic plant covered in a seed coat, often containing some
food. It is formed from the ripened ovule of plants after fertilization. A grain is a small
edible fruit, usually hard on the outside, harvested from grassy crops.

Every grain kernel has three main parts, bran, germ and endosperm. The bran is the
edible, outer layer of the kernel and is rich in fiber. The endosperm is the largest part of
the kernel, which is made of proteins and starches that supply the plant with food. The
germ is the seed that grows into a new plant. The germ is the inner layer and is rich in
nutrients.

Wheat Structure.
The endosperm is the potential white flour within the centre of the wheat grain. When
milled, the endosperm fractures along the cell walls, and separates from the bran layers.
The bran layers of the wheat grain consist of four separate layers: the Pericarp, Testa,
Nucellar Layers and Aleurone Cells.

Parts of a Wheat Kernel

1) The BRAN is the hard outer covering of the wheat kernel, high in fiber & nutrients.

2) The GERM is the nutrient-rich embryo that will sprout and grow into a new wheat plant.

3) The ENDOSPERM is the biggest part (83%), the "insides" of the kernel - mostly starch.

The head of wheat:

Wheat has small auricles. These wrap around the stem at the point where the leaf
sheath meets the leaf blade. The spike (also called the ear or head) forms at the top of
the plant. A spike usually has 35-50 grains (or kernels).

Types of wheat are:

Commercially wheat is classified into three sections.

1) Bread wheat (Triticum Vulgare)

2) Pasta Making (Triticum Durum)

3) Low Gluten or Clubbed wheat (Triticum Compactum)

By-Products Of Wheat:

Wholewheat

Cracked Wheat

Bulgar

Semolina

Couscous

Farina

Bran

Germ

Table:-18.1

Process of Wheat Flour

Milling is the process by which wheat is ground into flour. Separating the wheat
grain into its constituents (bran, germ and endosperm). As wheat arrives in the mill it is
passed through a cleaning process to remove coarse impurities and is then stored
according to its quality.

How is wheat flour processed?

The earliest methods used for producing flour all involved grinding grain between stones.
These methods included the MORTAR & PESTLE (a stone club striking grain held in a
stone bowl), the SADDLE STONE (a cylindrical stone rolling against grain held in a
stone bowl), and the QUERN (a horizontal, disk-shaped stone spinning on top of grain
held on another horizontal stone). These all devices were operated by hand. But in
modern era everything is done by machinery.

Flour is a finely ground powder prepared from grain or other starchy plant foods and
used in baking. Although flour can be made from a wide variety of plants, the vast
majority is made from wheat. Dough made from wheat flour is particularly well suited to
baking bread because it contains a large amount of gluten, a substance composed of
strong, elastic proteins. The gluten forms a network throughout the dough, trapping the
gases which are formed by yeast, baking powder, or other leavening agents. This
causes the dough to rise, resulting in light, soft bread.

Different types of flour and their uses

Flours from "soft" wheat have less protein and less elastic quality, so they are better for delicate pastries and cakes.

· All purpose flour. ...

· 100% whole-wheat flour. ...

· White whole-wheat flour. ...

· Self-rising flour. ...

· Cake or pastry flour. ...

· Bread flour. ...

· Gluten flour. ...

· Semolina flour.

The Manufacturing Process Of Flour

Grading the wheat

1 Wheat is received at the flour mill and inspected. Samples of wheat are taken for physical and chemical analysis. The wheat is graded based on several factors, the most important of which is the protein content. The wheat is stored in silos with wheat of the same grade until needed for milling.

2 Before wheat can be ground into flour it must be free of foreign matter. This requires several different cleaning processes. At each step of purification the wheat is inspected and purified again if necessary.

3 The first device used to purify wheat is known as a separator. This machine passes the wheat over a series of metal screens. The wheat and other small particles pass through the screen while large objects such as sticks and rocks are removed.

4 The wheat next passes through an aspirator. This device works like a vacuum cleaner. The aspirator sucks up foreign matter which is lighter than the wheat and removes it.

5 Other foreign objects are removed in various ways. One device, known as a disk separator, moves the wheat over a series of disks with indentations that collect objects the size of a grain of wheat. Smaller or larger objects pass over the disks and are removed.
6 Another device, known as a spiral seed separator, makes use of the fact that wheat grains are oval while most other plant seeds are round. The wheat moves down a rapidly spinning cylinder. The oval wheat grains tend to move toward the center of the cylinder while the round seeds tend to move to the sides of the cylinder, where they are removed.
7 Other methods used to purify wheat include magnets to remove small pieces of metal, scourers to scrape off dirt and hair, and electronic color sorting machines to remove material which is not the same color as wheat.

Preparing the wheat for grinding

8 The purified wheat is washed in warm water and placed in a centrifuge to be spun dry. During this process any remaining foreign matter is washed away.
9 The moisture content of the wheat must now be controlled to allow the outer layer of bran to be removed efficiently during grinding. This process is known as conditioning or tempering. Several methods exist of controlling the amount of water present within each grain of wheat. Usually this involves adding, rather than removing, moisture

10 Cold conditioning involves soaking the wheat in cold water for one to three days. Warm conditioning involves soaking the wheat in water at a temperature of 115°F (46°C) for 60-90 minutes and letting it rest for one day. Hot conditioning involves soaking the wheat in water at a temperature of 140°F (60°C) for a short period of time. This method is difficult to control and is rarely used. Instead of water, wheat may also be conditioned with steam at various temperatures and pressures for various amounts of time. If conditioning results in too much moisture, or if the wheat happens to be too moist after purification, water can be removed by vacuum dryers.

Grinding the wheat

11 Wheat of different grades and moistures is blended together to obtain a batch of wheat with the characteristics necessary to make the kind of flour being manufactured. At this point, the wheat may be processed in an Entoleter, a trade name for a device with rapidly spinning disks which hurl the grains of wheat against small metal pins. Those grains which crack are considered to be unsuitable for grinding and are removed

12 The wheat moves between two large metal rollers known as breaker rolls. These rollers are of two different sizes and move at different speeds. They also contain spiral grooves which crack open the grains of wheat and begin to separate the interior of the wheat from the outer layer of bran. The product of the breaker rolls passes through metal sieves to separate it into three categories. The finest material resembles a coarse flour and is known as middlings or farina. Larger pieces of the interior are known as semolina. The third category consists of pieces of the interior which are still attached to the bran. The middlings move to the middlings purifier and the other materials move to another pair of breaker rolls. About four or five pairs of breaker rolls are needed to produce the necessary amount of middlings.

13 The middlings purifier moves the middlings over a vibrating screen. Air is blown up through the screen to remove the lighter pieces of bran which are mixed with the middlings. The middlings pass through the screen to be more finely ground.

14 Middlings are ground into flour by pairs of large, smooth metal rollers. Each time the flour is ground it passes through sieves to separate it into flours of different fineness. These sieves are made of metal wire when the flour is coarse, but are made of nylon or silk when the flour is fine. By sifting, separating, and regrinding the flour, several different grades of flour are produced at the same time. These are combined as needed to produce the desired final products.

Processing the flour

15 Small amounts of bleaching agents and oxidizing agents are usually added to the flour after milling. Vitamins and minerals are added as required by law to produce enriched flour. Leavening agents and salt are added to produce self-rising flour. The flour is matured for one or two months.

16 The flour is packed into cloth bags.

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COMMODITIES

MILK:

Milk is the secretion of the mammary glands of mammals. No other food known to man can match nutritive value and utility in cookery and manufacture of food products. Milk is a remarkable fluid in which; wide diversity of compounds necessary for the nourishment of a young animal are combined as a homoganic mixture. The unqualified term milk implies cow’s milk. AII other milk bears a description such as human rr goats milk and camels milk and so on.

Homogenization:

Homogenization is the process of breaking down the fat molecules in milk so that they stay
integrated rather than separating as cream. Homogenization is a purely physical process;
nothing is added to the milk. Without homogenization, fat molecules in milk will rise to the top
and form a layer of cream.

Homogenization is a way to make conventional milk smooth and creamy by forcing
the milk through a nozzle that breaks down the fat globules. These smaller fat particles then
remain suspended in the milk, so the cream does not separate and rise to the top as it does in
non-homogenized milk.

Pasteurization:

Pasteurization is a process that kills harmful bacteria and creates an extended shelf life for the
milk. It does not affect the butterfat molecule, and there are no significant nutritional differences
between pasteurized and unpasteurized milk.

Pasteurization is the process of heating milk up and then quickly cooling it down to eliminate
certain bacteria. More common is heating milk up to at least 161.6 degrees Fahrenheit for 15
seconds, which is known as High-temperature Short-Time (HTST) pasteurization, or
flash pasteurization

Composition:-

The average percentage composition of whole cow’s milk is:-

Water -87% Protein -3.5%

fat - 3.7% Carbohydrate -4.9%

Ash -0.07%

VARIATION:

The variation in the nutrients content of milk my account for the following reasons-

a) Breed and individual characteristics of the animal.

b) The phase in (he ‘lactation period,

c) Type of feed.

PROTEIN:

The principal protein of milk is casein. Very small amounts of other proteins are also present.
Casein is easily coagulated by the addition of acid or the enzyme renin as in the manufacture of
cheese. Amongst the other proteins present in milk lacto albumin and lacto globulin are the chief
ones which do not precipitate by acid or renin. They can be coagulated by heat and are probably
chiefly responsible for the precipitate that usually forms on the bottom and sides of a container in
which milk is heated.

CARBOHYDRATES:

The primary carbohydrate in milk is lactose also known as milk sugar. Cow’s milk contains an
average of 4.6% lactose. Lactose is less sweet than sucrose and not very soluble. Sometime
milk sugar precipitates out during the heat treatment of evaporated milk. This evaporation is
because the water concentration not high enough to keep lactose dissolved. The result is a
granular texture owing to the formation of lactose crystals. Lactose also tends to crystalize in
dried milk during long storage which creates lumps and caking and is melted and refrozen ice
cream which creates sandiness.

MILK FAT:

In the souring of milk lactic acid bacteria converts lactose into lactic acid thus giving the soured
milk its characteristic flavour.When milk curdles and seperates into curds and whey the lactose
remains in the whey. Cheeses made from whey proteins have milk fat occurs as extremely small
fat globules surrounded by lipo-protein membrane that keeps the globules separate. The
separate fat globules tend to cream because of the lower specific gravity of the milk fat
compared to that of the milk scrum. Butter is made from cream that has been separated from
whole milk. When the cream is churned the agitation breaks the fragile lipoprotein membrane
and allows the fat globules to aggregate with each other to form large masses of fat clusters. At
a certain point the fat-m-water emulsion breaks and the fat separates from the surrounding liquid
to form a solid butter. In butter water is dispersed through the fat or oil masses.

MINERALS:

The primary minerals contained in milk are calcium phosphorus magnesium potassium sodium
chloride and sulphur. Some of the minerals found in milk are present in true solution others are
organically found to the proteins of milk. The salt content of milk is significant in that small
amounts are necessary for the coagulation of products (such as custard) made with milk.

PIGMENTS:

Milk has a faint ivory color caused by the refraction of light in the depressed particles in the
milk.The carotene in milk gives it a slightly yellow tinge and lacto flavin another milk pigments
imparts a green tone.

FLAVOURS:

Normally milk has a mild sweet flavour. The flavour may be affected by the physical condition of
the animal and by the composition of its food.Off flavours are chiefly caused by pasture weeds
such as wild onion garlic mustard and stinkweed. Some rancid or bitter flavors are caused by
old or moldy feed unclean or brany flavours are the result of the exposure of drawn milk to
compensatory external conditions.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MILK:

Milk contains most of the substances known to be essential to good nutrition.The milk proteins
include casein lactalbumin and locloglobulin which are of high quality.Milk also contain lactose
fat and seme vitamins.Lactose helps in absorption of certain mineral and also produces certain
microoo^ganisms in the intestine that in turn produce some B vitamins.Milk and milk products
are by for the most important source of calcium in the diet.Milk is also a rich source of both fat
soluble and water soluble vitamins.

Types Of Milk

1 Whole fluid milk

2 Homogenized Milk

3 Vitamin D milk

4 Fluid skin milk

5 Fluid low fat milk

6 Cultured milk
7 Concentrated milk:-

a) Evaporated milk

b) Evaporated skin milk

c) Condensed milk

d) Sweetened condensed milk

e) Dry milk f)Non-fat dry rnilk

g) Imitation and substitute milks .

PRINCIPLES OF USING MILK EFFECTS OF HEAT:

The flavour occur and cooking properties of milk are adversely affected by prolonged heating
and by high temperatures. Heated milk forms a precipitate on the bottom and sides of the
cooking pan. This precipitate is believed to be coagulated whey proteins that are sensitive to
heat. When milk is heated uncovered a skin forms.

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BUTTER & CREAM

BUTTER:

Butter is the product made from churning fresh cream.lt consists of more than 80% butterfat and
contains Vitamins A&D and small amountsw of protein minerals and milk sugar (Lactose).

CLASSIFICATION:

Butter can be classified under the following four heads:

a) Fresh or Sweet Cream Butter) Creamery

b) Ripened cream or lactic butter.

c) Blended or milled butter

d) Special butters

THE FIRST TWO ARE THE MAIN TYPES.

Manufacture of Butter (Creamy butter):- The following are the main stages in making the creamy
butters.

a) Holding

b) Ripening

c) Churning

d) Washing and Salting.

Other Butters

Blended or Milled Butters. This is a blend of butters from different countries and of vary grades
which are mixed together to produce a product which is of a fairly standard quality for the c a
competitive price. Blended butters are frequently sold under a brand name label usually as:

SPICED BUTTERS:

This group includes the butters that are not so commonly available and those which a butters.

a) Whey Butter

b) Milk blended butter

c)powdered butter.

d)Compound Butter

e)cocoa butter.f)peanut butter.

CREAM

Cream is the lighter portion of milk containing all the main constituents of milk but in which the
butter content is high and the solids content low. There is variety of fresh creams available to
cater. Each cream will also have been further processed in a particular way such as being
homogenized to thicken the cream to ensure that the cream is evenly distributed. There are
mainly 2 types of creams.

WHIPPING & CREAM:
In order to whip cream efficiently the following points should be obscene:

a) Cream containing a total average butter content of 30-38% is required.

b) Homogenized cream will not whip at all satisfaction .This is because when whipping
tiny bubbles of air are trapped and surrounded by the fat globules in the cream. Homogenized
cream will have had the majority of the fat globules broken in the homogenizing process
therefore these are not sufficient available to surround and trap the air.

c) The cream and the utensils to be used for whipping should be cooled to below 8 C

d) The utensils used should first be sterilized.

MANUFACTURED CREAMS:

Reconstituted Creams. This is not a true cream but a substance that resembles cream in app«
must contain no ingredient that is not derived from.milk.lt is made by emulsifying butter or butter
fall milk or skimmed milk powder.

IMITATION OR SYNTHETIC CREAM:

It is a substance that is not cream nor reconstituted cream but resembles it in appearance

Usually made by emulsifying vegetable fats with dried egg gelatin etc. and adding sugar and
flavorings.

Types of cream and their uses

Whether poured over a bowl of fresh strawberries or added to a sauce, cream is one of nature’s
most delicious treats and life just wouldn’t be the same without it! Cream is yellowish fatty
component of un-homogenized milk that tends to accumulate at the surface. The amount of
butterfat will determine how well it will whip and how stable it will be. Higher fat creams tend to
taste better, have a richer texture, and don’t curdle as easily when used in cooking.
Understanding their differences is key to selecting the right cream for your needs. Cream is
obtained by skimming the top layer of butterfat from milk, and it is categorized by its fat content
below.

Manufacturing Standards

Since each country has its own standards, the term “cream” may mean different products. In fact,
the name of a product will vary according to its milk fat content. In the United States, a dairy
product must contain at least 18% milk fat to be called cream. While in Europe, the term “cream”
only applies to a product with a minimum milk fat content of 30%.

Pasteurized and Ultra-pasteurized:

Creams will generally be labeled pasteurized or ultra-pasteurized. Pasteurized will provide a
better flavor, will whip up fluffier, and will hold up longer. As ultra-pasteurized whipping cream
has been heated to above 280 degrees F. to extend its shelf life, it is more temperamental when it
comes to whipping. Ultra-Pasteurized Heavy Cream “will not work” if peaks or frothing are
required in your recipe.

Varieties of Cream

Channel Island extra thick double cream

A rich, thick cream that is made with milk from Guernsey and Jersey cows, it can be used
straight from the tub. It has a fat content of 48%.

Uses: Spoon over puddings or fruit or add to sauces for a rich, creamy taste. Also ideal for using
to fill sponge cakes or gateaux.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the
use by date.

Chantilly Cream

Is another name for vanilla-flavored whipped cream. Note: In Italy, crema chantilly is made by
folding whipped cream into crema pasticcera (pastry cream) to make a wonderfully decadent
concoction.

Clotted cream

Clotted cream is the thickest and richest type available and is traditionally made in Devon or
Cornwall (also known as Devonshire or Devon). It is gently scalded to produce its golden crust.
It has a spoonable consistency and does not need to be whipped before serving. It has a fat
content of 55%- 60% and is not recommended for cooking because it tends to separate on
heating.

Uses: Traditionally served on scones with jam, also good on fresh fruit and ice cream. A
decadent accompaniment to desserts, used in place of regular/pure cream. Ideal as a filling in
desserts, and included in sauces and risottos. A great partner to a fresh berry assortment.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 2 weeks and consume by the use by date. It can be frozen
for up to 1 month.

Crème fraîche

This is fresh cream which is treated with a bacteria culture that thickens it and gives it a slightly
sour taste. It is suitable for spooning, is widely used in French cookery and is becoming
increasingly popular in Britain. It has a fat content of 39% and cannot be whipped. For a healthier
alternative choose the half fat version.

Uses: Crème fraîche is ideal for serving with fruit and puddings, it can also be used for making
salad dressings and dips. It can be used in cooking to add a creamy taste to curries, sauces and
casseroles. Crème Fraiche is valued by chefs as it is stable when heated and has a more refined
flavour.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the use by date. It cannot be frozen.

Double cream

This is the most versatile type of fresh cream, it can be used as it is or whipped. It contains 48%
fat.

Uses: It can be used for pouring over fruit and puddings, used in cooking or whipped and
incorporated into dishes or served separately. Whipped double cream can be spooned or piped on
to desserts and cakes.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the use by date. It can be frozen for up to 2 months when lightly whipped.

Extra thick single cream

This has the same fat content as single cream (18%) but it has been homogenised to produce a
thick spoonable consistency similar to double: it cannot be whipped.

Uses: Serve with fruit and desserts.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the
use by date. It is unsuitable for freezing.

Flavoured creams

Available at Christmas, Brandy, Calvados, and cinnamon creams are made from a combination of
double cream, sugar and alcohol.

Uses: Serve with Christmas pudding, apple tart or any chocolate or nut pudding. Spoon over
warm mince pies or use to fill brandy snaps. A spoonful of flavoured cream in hot chocolate is
delicious.

To store: Keep in the fridge and consume by the use by date. Once opened use within 3 days.

Goat’s milk double cream

Made from pasteurised goat’s milk from St Helen’s Farm in Yorkshire, goat’s milk double cream
has an ice white appearance and tastes smooth and mild. It is suitable for cow’s milk-free and
vegetarian diets.

Uses: It can be used for whipping, pouring or simply spooning on to desserts.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the
use by date. It can be frozen for up to 2 months when lightly whipped.

Half-and-Half (Also called Coffee Cream)

Is a mixture of half cream and half milk. The milk fat content is 10-12 percent. This cream cannot
be whipped. In the United States, half and half is a mix of 1/2 whole milk and ½ cream and is
typically used in coffee. Half-and-half does not whip, but it can be used in place of whipping
(heavy) cream in many recipes for less fat cooking and may replace whole homogenized milk
(3.25% m.f.) in some recipes for a fuller, richer flavor.

Heavy Cream or Heavy Whipping Cream

Has the highest amount of milk fat, which is usually between 36 and 40 percent in the United
States and as high as 48 percent elsewhere. In the U.S., it is mostly found in gourmet food stores.
This cream whips denser than whipping cream. Whips up well and holds its shape. Doubles in
volume when whipped.

Long Life Cream (UHT)

Long life cream has undergone ultra-heat treatment (UHT) to extend its shelf life. It is heated at
high temperatures for a short period to stabilize it. Available in cartons, long life usually contains
35% milk fat. It will whip well if chilled and can be spooned over desserts or used in cooking.
Also available in reduced fat.

Manufacturing cream

Has a fat content over 40%, and is generally not available in retail stores. It is primarily used in
professional food service.

Pressure Pack Whipped Cream

Convenient packaging for whipped cream (with a minimum of 25% milk fat.! A harmless nitrous
oxide gas propellant dissipates rapidly when the pack’s valve is depressed. It delivers already
whipped cream to cakes and desserts.

Reduced fat extra thick cream

With 50% less fat than standard thick double cream but all the delicious flavour, this variety
contains 24% fat. It is not suitable for whipping or boiling.

Uses: Serve with fruit or puddings or use in cooking for a rich, creamy flavour.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the
use by date. It is unsuitable for freezing.

Reduced fat single cream

With 25% less fat than standard single cream (it has 12% fat) this is an ideal low fat alternative. It
is not suitable for whipping or boiling.

Uses: In sauces, soups and dressings and coffee and to pour over fruit.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the
use by date. It is unsuitable for freezing.

Single cream

Single cream is a thin cream traditionally used for pouring and for enriching cooked dishes, it
contains 18%-20% fat. Also known as light cream.

Uses: For pouring over fruit and puddings and in cooking, especially in soups and sauces
although it should never be allowed to boil. It is not suitable for whipping.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the
use by date. It cannot be frozen unless it is incorporated into a cooked dish.

Sour cream

This is a tangy variety made from fresh single cream. To sour, a culture is added and the cream is
heated to about 20°C for 12–14 hours. The lactic acid produced in this process gives a slightly
sour taste and a thicker than normal consistency. It is commercially soured by adding a culture –
similar to that used in the production of yogurt. It has a fat content of 18% and cannot be
whipped.

Uses: With its slightly tart flavor, sour cream is often used in soups, sauces and dressings,
casseroles and cakes or served on vegetables. Good for savoury dishes such as beef stroganoff
and as a base for savoury dips.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the
use by date. It cannot be frozen.

Whipping cream

This cream will whip to double its original volume, which makes it perfect for adding to dishes
where a light result is needed. Whipping cream contains 30%- 38% fat.

Uses: Perfect for mousses and soufflés, filling cakes and gateaux, decorating trifles and topping
fruit and ice cream. Float whipped cream on coffee or hot chocolate. Once whipped the cream
does not hold its volume for long so it should be used straight away.

To store: Keep in the fridge for up to 5 days, once opened use within 3 days and consume by the
use by date. Whipping cream can be frozen for up to 2 months when lightly whipped.